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MSD Manual
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HEALTH TOPICS
HEALTHY LIVING
SYMPTOMS
EMERGENCIES
RESOURCES
COMMENTARY
ABOUT US
HEALTH TOPICS
HEALTHY LIVING
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Health Topics
Children's Health
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Care of Newborns and Infants
Newborn Screening Tests
More Information
Breastfeeding
Benefits of Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding Procedure
Complications of Breastfeeding for the Baby
Complications of Breastfeeding for the Mother
Taking Medications While Breastfeeding
Weaning
Formula Feeding
Starting Solid Foods in Infants
Initial Care of the Newborn
Physical Examination of a Newborn
Skin
Head and Neck
Heart and Lungs
Abdomen and Genitals
Nervous System
Muscles and Bones
First Few Days After Birth
Umbilical Cord
Circumcision
Skin
Urine and Bowel Movements
Weight
Discharge From the Hospital
Overview of Feeding of Newborns and Infants
Stools and Urine in Infants
Sleeping Behaviors in Newborns and Infants
Co-sleeping
Feeding Problems
Spitting Up
Vomiting
Overfeeding
Underfeeding
More Information
Teething
More Information
Health Supervision of Well Children
Toilet Training
The timing method
Preventive Health Care Visits in Infants
Examination
Screening
Safety
Nutrition and exercise
Promoting Optimal Health and Development of Children
Childhood health
Child development
Preventive Health Care Visits in Children
Examination
Screening
Safety
Nutrition and exercise
Preventive Health Care Visits in Adolescents
Examination
Screening
Safety
Nutrition and exercise
Symptoms in Infants and Children
Vomiting in Infants and Children
Causes
Common causes
Less common causes
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Treatment
Fluids
Medications to reduce vomiting
Diet
Key Points
Cough in Children
Causes
Common causes
Less common causes
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Treatment
Key Points
Crying in Children
Causes
Medical disorders
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Treatment
Support for parents
Key Points
Colic
Causes
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Treatment
Diarrhea in Children
Causes
Common causes
Less common causes
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Treatment
Dehydration
Diet
Key Points
Rashes in Children
Diaper rash (diaper dermatitis)
Cradle cap (seborrheic dermatitis)
Atopic dermatitis (eczema)
Viral infections that cause a rash
Other causes of rashes
Fever in Infants and Children
Causes
Acute fever
Chronic fever
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Testing for Acute Fever in Children
Fever in infants under 1 month old
Fever in infants between 1 month and 3 months old
Fever in children between 3 months and 3 years old
Fever in children over 3 years old
Testing for Chronic Fever in Children
Treatment
General measures
Medications to lower fever
Key Points
Constipation in Children
Causes
Common causes
Less common causes
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Treatment
Changing the diet
Modifying behavior
Stool softeners and laxatives
Key Points
Separation Anxiety and Stranger Anxiety
Separation Anxiety
Stranger Anxiety
Bacterial Infections in Infants and Children
Overview of Bacterial Infections in Children
Risk of bacterial infections in children
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Occult Bacteremia
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Infants under 3 months of age
Infants and children 3 months to 3 years of age
Treatment
Meningitis in Children
Causes
Symptoms
Newborns and children under 12 months of age
Older children and adolescents
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Vaccination
Preventive antibiotics
Rheumatic Fever
Symptoms
Joints
Heart
Skin
Nervous system
Diagnosis
Treatment
Preventive treatment (antibiotic prophylaxis)
Prognosis
Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Urine tests
Imaging tests
Blood tests
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Behavioral Problems in Children
Breath-Holding Spells
Cyanotic Breath-Holding Spells
Pallid Breath-Holding Spells
School Avoidance
Treatment
Violent Behavior in Children and Adolescents
Gang involvement
Bullying
Prevention
Overview of Behavioral Problems in Children
Stress-Related Behaviors in Children
Thumb sucking or pacifier use
Nail biting and nail picking
Head banging and rhythmic rocking
Behavioral Problems and Parenting Style
Treatment
The time-out technique
More Information
Eating Behavior Problems in Children
Undereating
Overeating
Binge eating
Promoting Healthy Mealtime Habits
Sleep Problems in Children
Nightmares
Night Terrors and Sleepwalking
Resistance to Going to Bed
Awakening During the Night
More Information
Temper Tantrums
Treatment
Overview of Birth Defects
Overview of Birth Defects
Causes of and Risk Factors for Birth Defects
Exposure to harmful substances (teratogens)
Nutrition
Genetic and chromosomal factors
Infections
Diagnosis
Before birth
After birth
Treatment
Birth Defects of the Brain and Spinal Cord
Overview of Brain and Spinal Cord Birth Defects
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
More Information
Hydrocephalus in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Complications of shunts
More Information
Macrocephaly
Diagnosis
Treatment
Microcephaly
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Neural Tube Defects and Spina Bifida
Spina Bifida
Other neural tube and associated defects
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Rett Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Birth Defects of the Face and Skull
Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate
Causes
Diagnosis
Treatment
Craniosynostosis
Sagittal craniosynostosis
Coronal craniosynostosis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Ear Defects
Diagnosis
Treatment
Eye Defects
Diagnosis
Treatment
Jaw Defects
Micrognathia
Agnathia
Maxillary hypoplasia
Diagnosis
Introduction to Birth Defects of the Face and Skull
Birth Defects of the Bones, Joints, and Muscles
Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Bowlegs and Knock-Knees
Bowlegs
Knock-knees
Clubfoot and Other Foot Defects
Clubfoot (talipes equinovarus)
Metatarsus adductus
Metatarsus varus
Talipes calcaneovalgus
Pes planus (flat feet)
Congenital Torticollis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip
Diagnosis
Treatment
Dislocated Knee
Treatment
Femoral Torsion
Treatment
Finger and Toe Defects
Diagnosis
Treatment
Missing or Incompletely Formed Limbs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Muscle Defects
Poland syndrome and other chest muscle defects
Prune-belly syndrome (triad syndrome)
Diagnosis
Treatment
Tibial Torsion
Introduction to Birth Defects of the Bones, Joints, and Muscles
Birth Defects of the Digestive Tract
Overview of Digestive Tract Birth Defects
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Abdominal Wall Defects (Omphalocele and Gastroschisis)
Omphalocele
Gastroschisis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Anal Atresia
Diagnosis
Treatment
Biliary Atresia
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Diaphragmatic Hernia
Diagnosis
Treatment
Esophageal Atresia and Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hirschsprung Disease
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Intestinal Malrotation
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Birth Defects of the Heart
Overview of Heart Defects
Anatomy of the Heart
Normal Fetal Circulation
Types of Heart Defects
Shunting of blood flow
Re-routing of blood flow
Blocked blood flow
Causes
Symptoms
Eisenmenger syndrome
Diagnosis
Treatment
Immediate care
Open-heart surgery
Cardiac catheterization
Medications
Devices to support heart function
Heart transplantation
Long-term management
More Information
Aortic Valve Stenosis in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Atrial and Ventricular Septal Defects
Symptoms
Atrial septal defects
Ventricular septal defects
Diagnosis
Treatment
Atrial septal defects
Ventricular septal defects
More Information
Atrioventricular Septal Defects
Types of atrioventricular septal defect
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Coarctation of the Aorta
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Immediate care
Surgical repair
Heart transplantation
Long-term care
More Information
Patent Ductus Arteriosus
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Pulmonary Valve Stenosis in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Tetralogy of Fallot
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hypercyanotic spells
Surgery
More Information
Transposition of the Great Arteries
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Persistent Truncus Arteriosus
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (TAPVR)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Other Birth Defects of the Heart
Pulmonary Atresia With Intact Septum
Single Ventricle Defects
Tricuspid Atresia
More Information
Bicuspid Aortic Valve
More Information
Aortopulmonary Window
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Congenitally Corrected Transposition of the Great Arteries
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Double Outlet Right Ventricle
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Ebstein Anomaly
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Birth Defects of the Urinary Tract and Genitals
Bladder Defects
Problems with nerves to the bladder (neurogenic bladder)
Failure of the bladder to close properly
Bladder diverticulum
Kidney Defects
Complications of birth defects of the kidneys
Types
Kidneys in the wrong location and position
Horseshoe kidneys
Missing kidneys
Poorly functioning kidneys
Polycystic kidney disease
Multicystic dysplastic kidney
Diagnosis
Treatment
Ureter Defects
Complications of birth defects of the ureters
Types
Extra ureters
Narrowed or widened ureters
Misplaced ureters
Ureteroceles
Diagnosis
Treatment
Urethra Defects
Types
Partially blocked urethra
Urethra in the wrong place
Urethral prolapse
Duplicated urethras (extra urethras)
Diagnosis
Treatment
Undescended Testes and Retractile Testes
Undescended Testes
Retractile Testes
Urinary Reflux
Causes
Complications of urinary reflux
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of Kidney and Urinary Tract Birth Defects
Complications of urinary tract defects
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Female Genital Birth Defects
Causes
Types
Labial adhesions
Imperforate hymen
Extra genital organs (duplication abnormalities)
Genital organs joined together (fusion abnormalities)
Missing or shortened vagina (vaginal agenesis)
Diagnosis
Treatment
Male Genital Birth Defects
Causes
Types
Hypospadias
Epispadias
Unusually small penis (micropenis)
Chordee
Other defects of the penis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Blood Problems in Newborns
Anemia in the Newborn
Rapid breakdown of red blood cells (hemolysis)
Blood loss
Decreased red blood cell production
Symptoms
Complications of anemia in newborns
Diagnosis
Treatment
Polycythemia in the Newborn
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Bone Disorders in Children
Osteoporosis in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of Bone Modeling Disorders in Children
Osteochondroses (Growth Plate Disorders)
Köhler Bone Disease
Diagnosis
Treatment
Kyphosis
Scheuermann Disease
Treatment
Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Osgood-Schlatter Disease
Diagnosis
Treatment
Bone Density Disorders in Children
Low Bone Density Disorders in Children
High Bone Density Disorders in Children (Osteopetroses)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of Bone Disorders in Children
Growth plates
Bone density
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Scoliosis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Child Abuse and Neglect
Overview of Child Abuse and Child Neglect
Risk factors for child neglect and abuse
Types
Neglect
Physical abuse
Sexual abuse
Emotional abuse
Special considerations
Symptoms
Physical neglect
Physical abuse
Sexual abuse
Emotional abuse and neglect
Diagnosis
Neglect and emotional abuse
Physical abuse
Sexual abuse
Treatment
Immediate safety of the child
Follow-up care
Removal from the home
Prevention
More Information
Female Genital Mutilation
Chromosome and Gene Abnormalities
Overview of Chromosomal Deletion Syndromes
Trisomy 18
Symptoms
Physical abnormalities
Internal abnormalities
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Trisomy 13
Symptoms
Physical abnormalities
Other abnormalities
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Overview of Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
Fragile X Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Trisomy X
Turner Syndrome
Symptoms
Infants
Older children, adolescents, and women
Diagnosis
Treatment
XYY Syndrome
Cri-du-Chat Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prader-Willi Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of Chromosome and Gene Disorders
Chromosome Abnormalities
Gene Abnormalities
Testing for Chromosome and Gene Abnormalities
Prevention
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
Complications of Down syndrome
Symptoms
Physical development
Cognitive (intellectual) development
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Noonan Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Klinefelter Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Common Viral Infections in Infants and Children
Overview of Viral Infections in Children
Viral Central Nervous System Infections in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Erythema Infectiosum (Parvovirus B19 Infection)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Measles
Transmission
Symptoms
Complications of measles
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Prevention before exposure
Preventive treatment after exposure
Mumps
Symptoms
Complications of mumps
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Overview of Viral Respiratory Tract Infections in Children
Causes
Symptoms
Complications of viral respiratory tract infections
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
More Information
Roseola Infantum
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Rotavirus Infection
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Rubella
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Congenital Kidney Tubular Disorders
Introduction to Congenital Kidney Tubular Disorders
Bartter Syndrome and Gitelman Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Cystinuria
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hypophosphatemic Rickets
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Connective Tissue Disorders in Children
Chondromalacia Patellae
Treatment
Infrapatellar Tendinitis
Treatment
Nail-Patella Syndrome
Diagnosis
Treatment
Introduction to Connective Tissue Disorders in Children
Cutis Laxa
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Ehlers-Danlos Syndromes
Symptoms
Complications of Ehlers-Danlos syndromes
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Marfan Syndrome
Symptoms
Heart problems
Musculoskeletal problems
Eye problems
Lung problems
Brain and spinal cord problems
Diagnosis
Treatment
Medications
Surgery
Physical activity
Prognosis
More Information
Osteochondrodysplasias
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum
Symptoms
Complications of pseudoxanthoma elasticum
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
Causes
Abnormal genes
Abnormal secretions
Symptoms
Newborns and young children
Older children and adults
Complications
Diagnosis
Newborn screening
Sweat test
Genetic testing
Carrier testing
Other tests
Treatment
Treatments for the lungs
Antibiotics
CFTR modulators
Enemas and stool softeners
Diet and supplements
Pancreatic enzyme supplements
Insulin
Surgery
Other treatments
End-of-life issues
Prognosis
More Information
Dehydration and Fluid Therapy in Children
Dehydration in Children
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Infants
Older children
Gastrointestinal Disorders in Children
Inguinal Hernia in Children
Symptoms
Complications of inguinal hernia
Diagnosis
Treatment
Umbilical Hernia in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Gastroenteritis in Children
Causes
Viruses
Bacteria
Parasites
Chemical toxins
Medications
Symptoms
Gastroenteritis caused by viruses
Gastroenteritis caused by bacteria
Gastroenteritis caused by parasites
Complications of gastroenteritis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Rehydration
Medications
Probiotics
Prevention
Gastroesophageal Reflux in Infants
Causes
Symptoms
Complications of reflux
Diagnosis
Treatment
Medications for reflux
Surgery for reflux
Stomach Ulcer in Children
Symptoms
Complications of peptic ulcer
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
Risk factors for pyloric stenosis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Intussusception
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Air enema
Surgery
Appendicitis in Children
Complications of appendicitis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Meckel Diverticulum
Complications of Meckel diverticulum
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders in Children
Communication Disorders in Children
Hearing impairment
Voice disorders
Speech disorders
Language disorders
Diagnosis
More Information
Enlarged Tonsils and Adenoids in Children
Causes
Symptoms
Complications
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hearing Impairment in Children
Causes
Symptoms
Screening and Diagnosis
Treatment
Hearing aids
Cochlear implants
Bone-anchored hearing aids (BAHAs)
Other therapies
Prognosis
More Information
Juvenile Angiofibromas
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Neck Masses in Children
Diagnosis
Treatment
Recurrent Respiratory Papillomatosis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
More Information
Introduction to Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders in Children
Eye Disorders in Children
Refractive Disorders in Children
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP)
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Amblyopia
Causes
Amblyopia caused by strabismus
Amblyopia caused by refractive errors
Amblyopia caused by blockage or decrease of vision
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Strabismus
Causes
Types
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Congenital Cataract
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Primary Infantile Glaucoma
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Gastrointestinal (GI) and Liver Problems in Newborns
Meconium Ileus
Causes
Complications of meconium ileus
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Cholestasis in the Newborn
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment of the cause
Supportive care
Prognosis
Meconium Plug Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
Causes
Risk factors for necrotizing enterocolitis
Symptoms
Complications of necrotizing enterocolitis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Jaundice in the Newborn
Complications of jaundice
Causes
Common causes of jaundice
Other causes of jaundice in newborns
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Treatment
Phototherapy or "bili lights"
Exchange transfusion
Key Points
General Problems in Newborns
Birth Injuries in Newborns
Head Injuries During Birth
Injuries to the Skin and Soft Tissues
Bleeding In and Around the Brain
Nerve Injuries
Facial nerve injury
Brachial plexus injury
Phrenic nerve injury
Spinal cord injury
Bone Injuries
Common Birthmarks and Minor Skin Markings in Newborns
Large-for-Gestational-Age (LGA) Newborns
Causes
Symptoms
Complications
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Preterm (Premature) Newborns
Risk Factors
Symptoms
Complications
Underdeveloped brain
Underdeveloped digestive tract and liver
Underdeveloped immune system
Underdeveloped kidneys
Underdeveloped lungs
Underdeveloped eyes
Difficulty regulating blood sugar, mineral, and hormone levels
Heart problems
Difficulty regulating body temperature
Diagnosis
Treatment
Very preterm newborns
Extremely preterm newborns
Discharge from the hospital
Prognosis
Prevention
Overview of General Problems in Newborns
Gestational Age
Problems Before Birth
Maternal health problems
Maternal medication and substance use
Fetal problems
Problems After Birth
Diagnosis
Diagnostic tests before birth (prenatal care)
Diagnosis after birth
Treatment
Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)
Postterm Newborns
Complications during and after delivery
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Small-for-Gestational-Age (SGA) Newborns
Causes
Maternal risk factors
Fetal risk factors
Symptoms
Immediate complications
Long-term complications
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Birth Asphyxia
Growth and Development
Growth and Weight Faltering in Children
Causes
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Physical Growth of Infants and Children
Length and Height
Weight
Head Circumference
Teeth
More Information
Childhood Development
Intellectual Development
Emotional and Behavioral Development
Infants
Children
Physical Growth and Sexual Maturation of Adolescents
Physical Growth
Sexual Maturation (Puberty)
More Information
Hereditary Metabolic Disorders
Mitochondrial Disorders
Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (LHON)
Leigh Syndrome
Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy, Lactic Acidosis, and Strokelike Episodes (MELAS)
More Information
Peroxisomal Disorders
Refsum Disease
Rhizomelic Chondrodysplasia Punctata
X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy
Zellweger Syndrome (ZS), Neonatal Adrenoleukodystrophy, and Infantile Refsum Disease (IRD)
More Information
Homocystinuria
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prevention
Prognosis
More Information
Tyrosinemia
Type I tyrosinemia
Type II tyrosinemia
Type III tyrosinemia
More Information
Overview of Carbohydrate Metabolism Disorders
More Information
Galactosemia
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Glycogen Storage Diseases
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Hereditary Fructose Intolerance
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Pyruvate Metabolism Disorders
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Deficiency
Pyruvate Carboxylase Deficiency
More Information
Fatty Acid Oxidation Disorders
Medium-Chain Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency (MCADD)
Long-Chain 3-Hydroxyacyl-CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency (LCHADD)
Very Long-Chain Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency (VLCADD)
Glutaric Acidemia Type II
More Information
Other Rare Hereditary Disorders of Lipid Metabolism
Cerebrotendinous Xanthomatosis
Sitosterolemia
More Information
Overview of Lysosomal Storage Disorders
More Information
Cholesteryl Ester Storage Disease and Wolman Disease
Wolman disease
Cholesteryl ester storage disease
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Fabry Disease
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Gaucher Disease
Types
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Krabbe Disease
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Metachromatic Leukodystrophy
Forms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Mucopolysaccharidoses
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Niemann-Pick Disease
Types
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Tay-Sachs Disease and Sandhoff Disease
Tay-Sachs Disease
Sandhoff Disease
More Information
Overview of Hereditary Metabolic Disorders
Heredity
Metabolism
Diagnosis
More Information
Overview of Amino Acid Metabolism Disorders
More Information
Branched-Chain Amino Acid Metabolism Disorders
Isovaleric Acidemia
Maple Syrup Urine Disease
Methylmalonic Acidemia
Propionic Acidemia
More Information
Hartnup Disease
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Hereditary Periodic Fever Syndromes
Overview of Hereditary Periodic Fever Syndromes
Familial Mediterranean Fever
Symptoms
Complications of familial Mediterranean fever
Diagnosis
Treatment
PFAPA Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
High Blood Pressure in Children
High Blood Pressure in Children
Causes
Primary hypertension
Secondary hypertension
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Medication treatment of high blood pressure in children
Prevention
More Information
High Blood Pressure Emergencies in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Medication Treatment of High Blood Pressure in Children
Adrenergic blockers
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs)
Calcium channel blockers
Thiazide diuretics
Direct vasodilators
Hormonal Disorders in Children
Early Puberty
Normal Puberty
Precocious Puberty
Central precocious puberty
Peripheral precocious puberty
Incomplete puberty
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hypothyroidism in Infants and Children
Congenital hypothyroidism
Acquired hypothyroidism
Symptoms
Newborns and infants
Older children and adolescents
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Diabetes Mellitus (DM) in Children and Adolescents
Blood sugar (glucose)
Insulin
Types of Diabetes
Prediabetes
Type 1 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes
Symptoms
Type 1 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes
Complications
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
Mental health issues
Blood vessel effects
Diagnosis
Diagnosing diabetes in children
Diagnosing the type and stage of diabetes
Testing after diagnosis
Treatment
Nutrition and exercise
Monitoring blood glucose
Type 1 diabetes treatment
Insulin delivery methods
Type 2 diabetes treatment
Treatment of complications of diabetes
Adolescents with diabetes
Support
Screening and Prevention
Type 1 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes
More Information
Congenital Goiter
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Delayed Puberty
Causes
Constitutional delay of puberty
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hyperthyroidism in Infants and Children
Newborns
Children and adolescents
Symptoms
Fetuses
Newborns
Children and adolescents
Complications of hyperthyroidism
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Male Hypogonadism in Children
Primary Hypogonadism
Klinefelter syndrome
Cryptorchidism
Vanishing testes syndrome (bilateral anorchia)
Absence of Leydig cells (Leydig cell aplasia)
Noonan syndrome
Secondary Hypogonadism
Kallmann syndrome
Panhypopituitarism
Isolated luteinizing hormone deficiency
Prader-Willi syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Growth Hormone Deficiency in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Diabetes Mellitus (DM) in Children and Adolescents
Overview of Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents
Blood sugar (glucose)
Insulin
Types of Diabetes
Prediabetes
Type 1 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes
Monogenic forms of diabetes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Screening for diabetes in children
Diagnosing diabetes in children
Diagnosing the type and stage of diabetes
Testing after diagnosis
Treatment
Diabetes education
Food choices and exercise
Medication
Monitoring blood glucose
Adolescents with diabetes
Support
More Information
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Testing after diagnosis
Treatment
Insulin treatment
Insulin delivery methods
Screening and Prevention of Progression
Delaying diabetes symptoms
Screening and prevention of diabetes complications
Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
Symptoms of Type 2 Diabetes
Diagnosis
Testing after diagnosis
Treatment
Type 2 diabetes treatment
Screening and Prevention
Type 2 diabetes
Complications of Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
Hypoglycemia
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
Blood vessel effects
Mental health issues
Monogenic Forms of Diabetes
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection in Children
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection in Children and Adolescents
Transmission of HIV Infection
Newborns and young children
Adolescents
Symptoms
Children with untreated HIV infection
Children with HIV infection treated with ART
Diagnosis
Pregnant people
All children under 18 months of age
Children over 18 months of age and adolescents
Monitoring
Treatment
Medications
Monitoring
Adherence
Preventing opportunistic infections
Routine childhood vaccinations
Social issues
Transition to Adult Care
Prognosis
Prevention
Preventing transmission from infected mother to child
Preventing transmission from infected children to others
Preventing transmission for adolescents
Preventive treatment before exposure
Infections in Newborns
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Rubella in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Syphilis in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Early congenital syphilis
Late congenital syphilis
Treatment
Prevention
Toxoplasmosis in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Overview of Infections in Newborns
Infection acquired in the womb (in utero infection)
Infection acquired during birth (intrapartum infection)
Infection acquired after birth (postpartum infection)
Types of infections in newborns
Diagnosis
Treatment
Bacterial Meningitis in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Conjunctivitis in Newborns
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Screening and treatment of pregnant people
Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Infection in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Infection in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Hospital-Acquired Infections in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Listeriosis in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Pneumonia in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Sepsis in Newborns
Early-onset sepsis
Late-onset sepsis
Symptoms
Complications of sepsis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Tuberculosis (TB) in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Newborns who need testing
Newborns who may need testing
Treatment
Prevention
Rheumatologic Disorders in Children
Kawasaki Disease
Symptoms
Complications of Kawasaki disease
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA)
Classification
Symptoms
Joint symptoms
Enthesitis symptoms
Eye symptoms
Skin symptoms
Systemic JIA symptoms
Complications of JIA
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Learning and Developmental Disorders
Intellectual Disability
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Prenatal screening
Developmental screening
Formal intellectual and skills testing
Identifying the cause
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Dyslexia
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Definition of Developmental Disorders
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
ADHD in adults
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Medication therapy
Behavior management
Prognosis
More Information
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Causes
Symptoms
Social communications and interactions
Language
Behavior, interests, and activities
Intelligence
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Learning Disorders
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Lung and Breathing Problems in Newborns
Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Newborns
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Meconium Aspiration Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn (PPHN)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Pneumothorax in the Newborn
Other air-leak syndromes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia (BPD)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Prevention
Treatment
Prognosis
Apnea of Prematurity
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hospital discharge and home care
Prognosis
Mental Health Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Generalized Anxiety Disorder in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Panic Disorder in Children and Adolescents
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Agoraphobia in Children and Adolescents
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Separation Anxiety Disorder
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Social Anxiety Disorder in Children and Adolescents
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Suicidal Behavior in Children and Adolescents
Risk Factors
Diagnosis
Treatment
If suicide occurs
Prevention
More Information
Acute and Posttraumatic Stress Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Symptoms
Reexperiencing the event (intrusion symptoms)
Avoidance of reminders (avoidance symptoms)
Negative effects on thinking and mood
Changes in alertness and reactions
Dissociative symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Bipolar Disorder in Children and Adolescents
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Conduct Disorder
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Depression and Mood Dysregulation Disorder in Children and Adolescents
Causes
Symptoms
Major depressive disorder
Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
Persistent depressive disorder
Diagnosis
Treatment
Antidepressants and suicide
Antipsychotics
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Nonsuicidal Self-Injury in Children and Adolescents
Diagnosis
Treatment
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and Related Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Schizophrenia in Children and Adolescents
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of Mental Health Disorders Children and Adolescents
Diagnosis
Overview of Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Muscular Dystrophies and Related Disorders
Emery-Dreifuss Dystrophy
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Limb-Girdle Dystrophy
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Myotonia Congenita
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Myotonic Dystrophy
Symptoms
Congenital myotonic dystrophy
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Introduction to Muscular Dystrophies and Related Disorders
Congenital Muscular Dystrophy
Treatment
More Information
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy and Becker Muscular Dystrophy
Symptoms
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
Becker muscular dystrophy
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Congenital Myopathies
Central core myopathy and multiminicore myopathy (core myopathies)
Centronuclear myopathy
Nemaline myopathy
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Familial Periodic Paralysis
Symptoms
Hypokalemic periodic paralysis
Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis
Andersen-Tawil syndrome
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prevention
Hypokalemic periodic paralysis
Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis
Andersen-Tawil syndrome
More Information
Neurocutaneous Syndromes in Children
Neurofibromatosis
Types
Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1)
NF2-related schwannomatosis (NF2)
Non-NF2 schwannomatosis (schwannomatosis)
Causes
Symptoms
Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1)
NF2-related schwannomatosis (NF2)
Non-NF2 schwannomatosis (schwannomatosis)
Diagnosis
Treatment
Sturge-Weber Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Screening for new problems
Prognosis
Von Hippel–Lindau Disease (VHL)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Screening for new problems
Neurologic Disorders in Children
Febrile Seizures
Febrile status epilepticus
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Infantile Spasms
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Tourette Syndrome and Other Tic Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Classification
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Comprehensive Behavioral Intervention for Tics (CBIT)
Medications
Treatment of other problems
Cerebral Palsy (CP)
Causes
Symptoms
Spastic cerebral palsy
Dyskinetic (athetoid or dystonic) cerebral palsy
Ataxic cerebral palsy
Mixed cerebral palsy
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Seizures in Children
Status epilepticus
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Immediate measures
Antiseizure medications
Surgery for seizures
Stimulating the vagus nerve
Stimulating the brain
Ketogenic diet
Prognosis
More Information
Reye Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Health Care Issues in Adolescents
Mental Health in Adolescents
Mental Health Issues in Adolescents
Impact of social media on mental health
More Information
Introduction to Health Care Issues in Adolescents
Common Health Issues in Adolescents
Obesity in Adolescents
Causes
Diagnosis
Treatment
Substance Use in Adolescents
Alcohol Use in Adolescents
Tobacco Use in Adolescents
Electronic Cigarettes (Vaping Products)
Cannabis (Marijuana)
Other Substances
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overdose prevention
More Information
Contraception and Pregnancy in Adolescents
Contraception in Adolescents
Pregnancy in Adolescents
Psychosocial Development in Adolescents
Cognitive Development in Adolescents
School issues in adolescents
Emotional Development in Adolescents
Development of Independence in Adolescents
Parenting styles during adolescence
Social Development in Adolescents
More Information
Sexuality and Gender in Adolescents
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Adolescents
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) in Adolescents
Respiratory Disorders in Infants and Children
Wheezing in Infants and Young Children
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Bacterial Tracheitis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Asthma in Children
Asthma Triggers
Risk Factors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Acute attacks (flare-ups)
Chronic asthma
Prognosis
Prevention
Allergy shots (immunotherapy)
Bronchiolitis
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
At-home treatment
Hospital treatment
Prevention
Prognosis
Croup
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Infection and Human Metapneumovirus Infection
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
Human metapneumovirus (hMPV)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Sudden Unexpected Infant Death and Brief, Resolved, Unexplained Events
Brief, Resolved, Unexplained Events (BRUE)
Symptoms
Causes of symptoms similar to BRUE
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Sudden Unexpected Infant Death (SUID) and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Causes
Risk factors for SIDS
Diagnosis
Prevention
Resources for Parents Who Have Lost an Infant to SUID or SIDS
More Information
Social Issues Affecting Children and Their Families
Bullying
Forms of bullying
Children who are bullied
Bullies
More Information
Children and Death and Dying
Death of a Child
Helping Children Deal with Death and Dying
Visiting sick children or adults
Death of a family member or loved one
Attending a funeral
More Information
Overview of Social Issues Affecting Children
Talking With Children About Difficult Topics
Illness and Death in Infants
Illness in Infants
Infant Loss (Death of an Infant)
More Information
Children and Youth with Special Health Care Needs
Effects of chronic illness on children
Effects of chronic illness in children on parents and other family members
Medical care team
Divorce and Children
Stages of adjustment
Effects on children
Helping children cope with divorce
Effects of a parent having a new relationship
Child Care
Benefits of care outside the home
Foster Care
Foster parents
Foster children
More Information
Adoption
Adoption from foster care
Independent adoption or private adoption
International adoption
After adoption
Contact with birth parents
More Information
Stool Incontinence in Children
Stool Incontinence in Children
Causes
Diagnosis
Treatment
Behavior plan
Maintenance
Urinary Incontinence in Children
Urinary Incontinence in Children
Causes
Common causes of urinary incontinence
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Treatment
Nighttime incontinence (enuresis, or bed-wetting)
Daytime incontinence
Key Points
Vaccination of Children
Childhood Vaccination Concerns
COVID-19 Vaccines
Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) Vaccine: Concerns About Autism Spectrum Disorder
Thimerosal: Concerns About Autism Spectrum Disorder
Receiving Several Vaccines at the Same Time
Childhood Vaccinations
Childhood Vaccination Schedules
Vaccine Effectiveness
Vaccine Safety
Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS)
Effects of Vaccine Hesitancy on Public Health
More Information
