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  1. <Health Topics
    Lung and Airway Disorders
    Biology of the Lungs and Airways
    • Overview of the Respiratory System
    • Chest Cavity
    • Exchanging Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
    • Control of Breathing
      • Respiratory muscles
    • Defense Mechanisms of the Respiratory System
    • Effects of Aging on the Respiratory System
    Symptoms of Lung Disorders
    • Cough in Adults
      • Causes
        • Common causes
        • Less common causes
      • Evaluation
        • Warning signs
        • When to see a doctor
        • What the doctor does
        • Testing
      • Treatment
        • Cough suppressants
        • Expectorants
        • Other medications
        • Other treatments
      • Key Points
    • Shortness of Breath
      • Causes
        • Lung disorders
        • Heart failure
        • Anemia
        • Other causes
      • Evaluation
        • Warning signs
        • When to see a doctor
        • What the doctor does
        • Testing
      • Treatment
      • Key Points
    • Wheezing
      • Causes
        • Common causes
        • Less common causes
      • Evaluation
        • Warning signs
        • When to see a doctor
        • What the doctor does
        • Testing
      • Treatment
      • Key Points
    • Stridor
    • Cyanosis
    • Clubbing
    • Coughing Up Blood
      • Causes
        • Common causes
        • Less common causes
        • Massive hemoptysis
        • Risk factors
      • Evaluation
        • Warning signs
        • When to see a doctor
        • What the doctor does
        • Testing
      • Treatment
      • Key Points
    • Overview of Symptoms of Lung Disorders
    Diagnosis of and Procedures for Lung Disorders
    • Overview of Tests and Procedures for Lung Disorders
    • Medical History and Physical Examination for Lung Disorders
      • Medical History
      • Physical Examination
    • Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) Analysis and Pulse Oximetry
      • Pulse oximetry
      • Arterial blood gas measurement
    • Bronchoscopy
      • Procedures Done With Bronchoscopy
    • Chest Imaging
      • Chest X-Rays
      • Computed Tomography (CT) of the Chest
      • Computed Tomography (CT) Angiography of the Chest
      • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Chest
      • Chest Ultrasound
      • Nuclear Lung Scanning
      • Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
    • Chest Tube Insertion
    • Exercise Testing
      • Six-minute walk test
      • Cardiopulmonary exercise testing
    • Mediastinoscopy and Mediastinotomy
    • Needle Biopsy of the Pleura or Lung
    • Pulmonary Function Testing (PFT)
      • Lung airflow measurements (spirometry)
      • Lung volume measurement (plethysmography)
      • Muscle strength assessment
      • Diffusing capacity measurement
      • Maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV)
    • Suctioning
    • Thoracentesis
    • Thoracoscopy
    • Thoracotomy
    • Introduction to Diagnosis of Lung Disorders
    Abscess in the Lungs
    • Abscess in the Lungs
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    Acute Bronchitis
    • Acute Bronchitis
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    Asthma
    • Medications for Treating Asthma and Preventing Attacks
      • Beta-Adrenergic Medications
        • Short-acting beta-adrenergic medications
        • Long-acting beta-adrenergic medications
        • Ultra–long-acting beta-adrenergic medications
        • Taking inhaled beta-adrenergic medications
      • Anticholinergic Medications
      • Leukotriene Modifiers
      • Mast Cell Stabilizers
      • Steroids
      • Biologic Medications
      • Methylxanthines
      • Other Medications Used to Treat Asthma and Prevent Attacks
      • More Information
    • Asthma
      • Causes
        • Underlying mechanisms of asthma
        • Cellular basis of asthma
        • Eosinophilic asthma
        • Asthma attacks
        • Asthma triggers
        • Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome
      • Symptoms
        • Symptoms of an asthma attack
      • Classification
        • Asthma severity
        • Status asthmaticus
        • Asthma control
        • Impairment
        • Risk
      • Diagnosis
        • Identifying asthma triggers with allergy testing
        • Evaluating an asthma attack
        • Diagnosing asthma in older adults
      • Treatment
        • Asthma education
        • Asthma medications
        • Monitoring asthma at home
        • Treating asthma attacks
        • Preventing asthma attacks
      • Prognosis
      • More Information
    • Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    Autoimmune Disorders of the Lungs
    • Idiopathic Pulmonary Hemosiderosis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Anti-Glomerular Basement Membrane Disease
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
      • More Information
    • Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
    • Pulmonary-Renal Syndrome
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    Bronchiectasis and Atelectasis
    • Atelectasis
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • Treatment of complications
      • Prevention
      • More Information
    • Bronchiectasis
      • Complications
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prevention
      • More Information
    Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
    • Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
        • Early COPD
        • Progression of COPD
        • COPD flare-up
        • Complications of COPD
      • Diagnosis
        • Tests of lung function
        • Other tests
        • Testing in COPD flare-ups
      • Treatment
        • Treatment of symptoms
        • Treatment of flare-ups
        • Oxygen therapy
        • Pulmonary rehabilitation
        • Other treatments
      • Prognosis and End-of-Life Issues
      • More Information
    • Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • Emphysema
      • Liver damage
      • Panniculitis
    Environmental and Occupational Lung Diseases
    • Overview of Environmental and Occupational Lung Disease
      • Prevention
      • More Information
    • Air Pollution–Related Illness
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prevention
      • More Information
    • Building-Related Illnesses
      • Specific building-related illnesses
      • Nonspecific building-related symptoms
      • Diagnosis
        • History and clinical evaluation
        • Building or workplace evaluation
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    • Byssinosis
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prevention
    • Work-Related Asthma
      • Sensitizer-induced occupational asthma
      • Irritant exposure and reactive airways dysfunction syndrome
      • Work-exacerbated asthma
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
        • Work-exacerbated asthma
      • Treatment
      • Prevention
    • Irritant Gas Inhalation Injury
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
      • Prevention
    • Overview of Asbestos-Related Disorders
    • Asbestosis
      • Risk factors
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
      • Prevention
    • Mesothelioma
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
      • Prevention
    • Asbestos-Related Pleural Disease
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Silicosis
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Complications
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prevention
      • More Information
    • Coal Worker Pneumoconiosis
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
        • Complications
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prevention
    • Beryllium Disease
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
      • Prevention
    Interstitial Lung Diseases
    • Idiopathic Pleuroparenchymal Fibroelastosis
    • Overview of Interstitial Lung Diseases
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Overview of Idiopathic Interstitial Pneumonias
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Pulmonary Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Lymphoid Interstitial Pneumonia
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prevention
    • Eosinophilic Pneumonia
      • Löffler syndrome
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    • Respiratory Bronchiolitis–Associated Interstitial Lung Disease and Desquamative Interstitial Pneumonia
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Nonspecific Interstitial Pneumonia
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Cryptogenic Organizing Pneumonia
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Acute Interstitial Pneumonia
    • Lymphangioleiomyomatosis
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    • Drug-Induced Pulmonary Disease
    Pleural and Mediastinal Disorders
    • Pleural Fibrosis and Calcification
      • Postinflammatory pleural fibrosis
      • Asbestos-related pleural disease
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Mediastinal Masses
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Mediastinitis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Pneumomediastinum
    • Overview of Pleural and Mediastinal Disorders
    • Pleural Effusion
      • Types of fluid
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • Effusions caused by pneumonia
        • Effusions caused by cancers
        • Chylothorax
    • Pneumothorax
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • Recurring pneumothorax
    • Viral Pleuritis
    Pneumonia
    • Overview of Pneumonia
      • Causes
        • Categories of pneumonia
        • Risk factors for pneumonia
      • Symptoms
        • Complications of pneumonia
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • Antibiotics
        • Antiviral and antifungal medications
        • Home versus hospital care
      • Prevention
        • Vaccines to prevent pneumonia
      • More Information
    • Community-Acquired Pneumonia
      • Causes
        • Bacterial causes of pneumonia
        • Viral causes of pneumonia
        • Fungal causes of pneumonia
        • Parasites that cause pneumonia
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
      • Prevention
        • Vaccines to prevent pneumonia
    • Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia
      • Risk Factors
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • End-of-life issues in serious pneumonia
      • Prognosis
    • Pneumonia in People With a Weakened Immune System
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
      • Prevention
    • Aspiration Pneumonia and Chemical Pneumonitis
      • Aspiration Pneumonia
      • Chemical Pneumonitis
    Pulmonary Embolism
    • Pulmonary Embolism (PE)
      • Causes
        • Unusual types of emboli
      • Symptoms
        • Pulmonary infarction
        • Recurring emboli
      • Diagnosis
        • Tests that suggest pulmonary embolism
        • Tests to diagnose pulmonary embolism
        • Tests for serious or recurring emboli
      • Treatment
        • Anticoagulation
        • Thrombolytic therapy
        • Physical measures
      • Prognosis
      • Prevention
        • Anticoagulation for pulmonary embolism
        • Physical measures
    Pulmonary Hypertension
    • Portopulmonary Hypertension
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hepatopulmonary Syndrome
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Pulmonary Hypertension
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    Rehabilitation for Lung and Airway Disorders
    • Pulmonary Rehabilitation
      • Enrollment and Goal Setting
      • Components of Pulmonary Rehabilitation
        • Exercise training
        • Inspiratory muscle training
        • Psychosocial counseling
        • Nutritional evaluation and counseling
        • Medication use and education
    • Oxygen Therapy
      • When oxygen is used
      • Oxygen delivery systems
      • Oxygen administration
    • Chest Physical Therapy
      • Postural drainage
      • Suctioning
      • Breathing exercises
    Respiratory Failure and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
    • Respiratory Failure
      • Causes
        • Low oxygen level (hypoxemic respiratory failure)
        • High carbon dioxide level (hypercarbic respiratory failure)
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
    • Mechanical Ventilation
      • Alternatives
      • Complications
      • Stopping Mechanical Ventilation
    Sarcoidosis
    • Sarcoidosis
      • Löfgren syndrome
      • Heerfordt syndrome
      • Blau syndrome
      • Symptoms
        • General
        • Lungs
        • Skin
        • Liver and spleen
        • Eyes
        • Heart
        • Joints, muscles, and bones
        • Nervous system
        • High calcium levels
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
    Sleep Apnea
    • Sleep Apnea
      • Types of Sleep Apnea
        • Obstructive sleep apnea
        • Obstructive sleep apnea in children
        • Central sleep apnea
      • Symptoms
        • Obstructive sleep apnea
        • Central sleep apnea
        • Obesity-hypoventilation syndrome
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • Obstructive sleep apnea
        • Central sleep apnea
      • More Information
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