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Professional
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MSD Manual
Consumer Version
HEALTH TOPICS
HEALTHY LIVING
SYMPTOMS
EMERGENCIES
RESOURCES
COMMENTARY
ABOUT US
HEALTH TOPICS
HEALTHY LIVING
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Health Topics
Cancer
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Overview of Cancer
Screening for Cancer
More Information
Overview of Cancer
Types of Cancer
Cancer Terminology
Development and Spread of Cancer
Initiation
Promotion
Spread
Risk Factors for Cancer
Family history
Genes and chromosomes
Age
Environmental factors
Geography
Diet
Medications and medical treatments
Infections
Inflammatory disorders
Defenses Against Cancer
Tumor antigens
Immune checkpoints
Warning Signs of Cancer
Symptoms of Cancer
Pain
Bleeding
Blood clots
Weight loss and fatigue
Swollen lymph nodes
Neurologic and muscular symptoms
Respiratory symptoms
Diagnosis of Cancer
Imaging tests
Biopsy
Cancer biomarkers (also called tumor markers)
Staging Cancer
Grading Cancer
Paraneoplastic Syndromes
General paraneoplastic syndromes
Digestive tract syndromes
Endocrine syndromes
Neurologic syndromes
Skin syndromes
Other syndromes
Prevention and Treatment of Cancer
Prevention of Cancer
Lifestyle factors
Environmental factors
Vaccines against cancer
Other factors
More Information
Cancer Treatment Principles
Response to cancer treatment
Supportive care
More Information
Cancer Surgery
Radiation Therapy for Cancer
Types of Radiation Therapy
External radiation therapy
Internal radiation
Uses for Radiation Therapy
Side Effects of Radiation Therapy
Chemotherapy and Other Systemic Cancer Treatments
Endocrine Therapy for Cancer
Chemotherapy
High-dose chemotherapy
Targeted Therapy
Gene Therapy
Other Medications
Chemotherapy Side Effects
Gastrointestinal Effects
Low Blood Cell Concentrations
Mouth Sores
Depression and Anxiety
Organ Damage and Other Cancers
Tumor Lysis Syndrome and Cytokine Release Syndrome
Immunotherapy for Cancer
Monoclonal antibodies
Modified T cells
Nonspecific immunotherapy
Vaccines for cancer
Combination Cancer Therapy
Alternative Medicine for Cancer
Diet and Cancer
Alcohol
Antioxidants
Artificial sweeteners
Bioengineered foods (genetically modified [GMO] foods)
Calcium
Coffee
Fiber
Fish and omega-3 fatty acids
Fluoride
Folate
Food additives
Garlic
Irradiated foods
Lycopene
Meats cooked at high temperatures
Organic food
Pesticides
Processed meats
Saturated fats
Selenium
Spices
Tea
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
More information
Leukemias
Myelodysplastic Syndromes (MDS)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment of complications of myelodysplastic syndromes
Prognosis
More Information
Overview of Leukemia
Classification of leukemia
Complications of leukemia
Causes
Treatment
More Information
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Chemotherapy for leukemia
Relapse
Prognosis
More Information
Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Relapse
Prognosis
More Information
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Medication treatment of CLL
Treatment of CLL symptoms
Prognosis
More Information
Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Lymphomas
Burkitt Lymphoma
Cutaneous T-cell Lymphomas
More Information
Overview of Lymphomas
More Information
Hodgkin Lymphoma
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Staging
Treatment
Pretreatment strategies
Chemotherapy with or without radiation therapy
Posttreatment strategies
More Information
Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis and Classification
Staging
Treatment
Stage I non-Hodgkin lymphomas: Limited disease
Stage II non-Hodgkin lymphomas: Limited or advanced disease
Stages III to IV non-Hodgkin lymphomas: Advanced disease
Posttreatment strategies
Relapse
More Information
Mouth, Nose, and Throat Cancers
Mouth and Throat Cancer
Types of cancer found in the mouth and throat
Risk Factors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Screening
Prognosis
Prevention
Treatment
Side effects of treatment
More Information
Overview of Mouth, Nose, and Throat Cancers
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Staging tests
Prognosis
Prevention
Treatment
Laryngeal Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Early-stage cancer treatment
Moderate-stage cancer treatment
Advanced-stage cancer treatment
Side effects of treatment
More Information
Paranasal Sinus Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
More Information
Nasopharyngeal Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
More Information
Salivary Gland Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Tumors of the Digestive System
Anal Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Colorectal Cancer
Risk Factors
Lynch syndrome (hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal carcinoma [HNPCC])
MUTYH polyposis syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
After surgery
Prognosis
Prevention
Esophageal Tumors That Are Noncancerous
Diagnosis
Treatment
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Pancreatic Cancer
Rare types of pancreatic cancer
Symptoms
Complications of pancreatic cancer
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Polyps of the Colon and Rectum
Hereditary conditions that cause intestinal polyps
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Monitoring of Peutz-Jeghers syndrome
Treatment
Prevention
Small-Intestine Cancer
Rare types of small-intestine cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Small-Intestine Tumors That Are Noncancerous
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Stomach Tumors That Are Noncancerous
Esophageal Cancer
Risk Factors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Stomach Cancer
Rare types of stomach cancer
Risk Factors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Colorectal Cancer Screening
Colonoscopy
Stool Tests
Sigmoidoscopy
Computed Tomography (CT) Colonography
Screening Tests for Genetic Causes of Colorectal Cancer
Liver Cancers
Hepatocellular Carcinoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Staging
Screening
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Other Primary Liver Cancers
Other Primary Liver Cancers
Cholangiocarcinoma
Fibrolamellar carcinoma
Hepatoblastoma
Angiosarcoma
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Metastatic Liver Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors
Gastrinoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Glucagonoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Insulinoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Vipoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors
Treatment
Carcinoid Syndrome due to Neuroendocrine Tumors
Symptoms
Carcinoid syndrome
Diagnosis
Locating the tumor
Treatment
Symptom control
Surgery and other treatments
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Syndromes
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Syndromes (MEN)
Types
MEN type 1
MEN type 2A
MEN type 2B
MEN type 4
Diagnosis
Treatment
Bone and Joint Tumors
Noncancerous Bone Tumors
Chondroblastomas
Chondromyxoid fibromas
Enchondromas
Fibrous dysplasia
Benign giant cell tumors
Nonossifying fibroma (fibrous cortical defect, fibroxanthoma)
Osteoblastomas
Osteochondromas
Osteoid osteomas
Primary Cancerous Bone Tumors
Adamantinomas
Chondrosarcomas
Chordomas
Ewing sarcoma of bone
Lymphoma of bone
Osteosarcomas (osteogenic sarcoma)
Metastatic Bone Tumors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Multiple Myeloma Bone Tumors
Overview of Bone Tumors
Multiple myeloma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
More Information
Bone Cysts
Aneurysmal bone cysts
Unicameral bone cysts (simple bone cysts)
Joint Tumors
Tenosynovial giant cell tumor
Synovial chondromatosis
Cancers of the Kidney and Genitourinary Tract
Kidney Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Tumors Metastatic to the Kidney
Renal Pelvis and Ureter Cancers
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Bladder Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Urethral Cancer
Penile Cancer
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Testicular Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prostate Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Grading
Staging
Screening
Treatment
Strategies for treatment
Surgery
Radiation therapy
Focal therapies
Hormonal therapy
Other medications
Follow-up
Prognosis
Prevention
Skin Cancers
Atypical Fibroxanthoma
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Kaposi Sarcoma
Symptoms
Classic Kaposi sarcoma
Advanced HIV–associated Kaposi sarcoma
Iatrogenic Kaposi sarcoma (immunosuppressive Kaposi sarcoma)
Endemic Kaposi sarcoma
Nonepidemic Kaposi sarcoma
Diagnosis
Treatment
Classic Kaposi sarcoma
Iatrogenic Kaposi sarcoma
Advanced HIV–associated Kaposi sarcoma
Endemic Kaposi sarcoma
Nonepidemic Kaposi sarcoma
More Information
Keratoacanthomas
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
More Information
Melanoma
Risk Factors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Melanoma that has spread
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Merkel Cell Carcinoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
More Information
Paget Disease of the Breast
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Situ
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
More Information
Overview of Skin Cancer
Treatment
Prevention
Screening for skin cancer
More Information
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Tumors of the Lungs
Airway Tumors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Neuroendocrine Tumors of the Lungs
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Chest Wall Tumors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Lung Cancer
Causes
Genetic changes
Symptoms
Complications of lung cancer
Diagnosis
Imaging
Microscopic examination
Genetic testing
Staging
Screening for lung cancer
Treatment
Surgery for lung cancer
Radiation therapy for lung cancer
Chemotherapy for lung cancer
Targeted therapies for lung cancer
Laser and ablation therapy for lung cancer
Other treatments
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Overview of Lung Tumors
Noncancerous lung tumors
Tumors of the Nervous System
Some Specific Brain Tumors
Gliomas
Symptoms of gliomas
Diagnosis of gliomas
Treatment of gliomas
Medulloblastomas
Symptoms of medulloblastomas
Treatment of medulloblastomas
Meningiomas
Symptoms of meningiomas
Diagnosis of meningiomas
Treatment of meningiomas
Pineal Tumors
Symptoms of pineal tumors
Diagnosis of pineal tumors
Treatment of pineal tumors
Pituitary Gland Tumors
Diagnosis of pituitary gland tumors
Treatment of pituitary gland tumors
Primary Brain Lymphoma
Diagnosis of primary brain lymphoma
Treatment of primary brain lymphoma
Overview of Tumors of the Nervous System
Overview of Brain Tumors
Classification of Brain Tumors
Primary tumors
Secondary tumors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Specific treatments for brain tumors
Other treatment considerations
Spinal Tumors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Damage to the Nervous System Due to Radiation Therapy
Cancers of the Female Reproductive System
Overview of Female Reproductive System Cancers
Diagnosis
Staging
Treatment
Cancer of the Uterus
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Staging of endometrial cancer
Treatment
Treatment of endometrial cancer that has not spread outside the uterus
Treatment of endometrial cancer that has spread to the cervix or to nearby tissues, the vagina, or lymph nodes
Treatment of very advanced or recurrent endometrial cancer
Treatment of sarcoma of the uterus
Fertility and menopause after endometrial cancer
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Ovarian Cancer, Fallopian Tube Cancer, and Peritoneal Cancer
Risk Factors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Staging of ovarian, fallopian tube, and peritoneal cancer
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
More Information
Cervical Cancer
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Biopsy
Staging of cervical cancer
Treatment
Precancerous changes and early stage I cervical cancer
Late stage I and early stage II cervical cancer
Late stage II through early stage IV cervical cancer
Extensive spread or recurrence of cervical cancer
Sentinel lymph node mapping and dissection
Fertility and menopause after cervical cancer
Prognosis
More Information
Vulvar Cancer
Risk Factors
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Staging of vulvar cancer
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Vaginal Cancer
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Staging of vaginal cancer
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Molar Pregnancy
Types of gestational trophoblastic disease
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Staging
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Cervical Cancer Screening and Prevention
Screening tests
HPV vaccine
Condoms
Breast Cancer
Breast Cancer
Risk Factors for Breast Cancer
Age
Race and ethnicity
Family history of breast cancer
Breast cancer gene mutation
Previous history of breast cancer
Age at first menstrual period, first pregnancy, and menopause
Benign breast disease
Dense breast tissue
Oral contraceptives (birth control pills)
Hormone therapy
Radiation exposure
Diet
Obesity
Smoking and alcohol
Types of Breast Cancer
Type of tissue
Extent of spread
Tumor receptors
Other characteristics
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Breast biopsy
Evaluation after cancer diagnosis
Staging
Treatment
Surgery
Removal of the Breast Without Cancer
Radiation Therapy
Chemotherapy and hormone blockers (tamoxifen and aromatase inhibitors)
Treatment of Noninvasive Cancer (Stage 0)
Treatment of Early-Stage Invasive Cancer (Stages I and II)
Treatment of Locally Advanced Cancer (Stage III)
Treatment of Cancer That Has Spread (Stage IV) or Recurs
Treatment of Specific Types of Breast Cancer
Preservation of Fertility
Follow-up Care
Prognosis
End-of-Life Issues
Breast Cancer Screening and Prevention
Screening
Concerns about screening for breast cancer
Mammography
Breast self-awareness
Breast examination by a health care professional
Magnetic resonance imaging
Prevention
Breast Disorders
Breast Pain
Causes
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What a doctor does
Treatment
Key Points
Overview of Breast Disorders
Symptoms
Evaluation
Breast examination
Testing
Breast Cysts
Fibroadenomas of the Breast
Fibrocystic Changes of the Breast
Diagnosis
Treatment
Breast Abscess
Breast Lumps
Causes
Common causes of breast lumps
Other causes of breast lumps
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Treatment
Key Points
Nipple Discharge
Causes
Common causes of a nipple discharge
Less common causes of a nipple discharge
Evaluation
Warning signs
When to see a doctor
What the doctor does
Testing
Treatment
Key Points
Childhood Cancers
Astrocytomas
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Ependymomas
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Medulloblastomas
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Overview of Childhood Cancer
Complications of Cancer Treatment
Care Team for Cancer Treatment
More Information
Overview of Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors in Children
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Neuroblastoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Retinoblastoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Rhabdomyosarcoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
Wilms Tumor
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
More Information
