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Professional
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MSD Manual
Consumer Version
HEALTH TOPICS
HEALTHY LIVING
SYMPTOMS
EMERGENCIES
RESOURCES
COMMENTARY
ABOUT US
HEALTH TOPICS
HEALTHY LIVING
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Health Topics
Hormonal and Metabolic Disorders
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Biology of the Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands
Endocrine Function
Endocrine Controls
Endocrine Disorders
Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System
Adrenal Gland Disorders
Nonfunctional Adrenal Masses
Overview of the Adrenal Glands
Adrenal disorders
Adrenal Insufficiency
Adrenal hormones
Primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison disease)
Secondary adrenal insufficiency
Symptoms
Adrenal crisis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Cushing Syndrome
Taking steroids
Cushing disease
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Adrenal Virilization
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hyperaldosteronism
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Pheochromocytoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Cholesterol Disorders
Elevated HDL Cholesterol
Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) deficiency
Familial hyperalphalipoproteinemia
Overview of Cholesterol and Lipid Disorders
Complications of abnormal lipid levels
Measuring lipid levels
Dyslipidemia
Causes
Primary (hereditary) dyslipidemia
Familial combined hyperlipidemia
Familial dysbetalipoproteinemia
Familial hypercholesterolemia
Familial hypertriglyceridemia
Hypoalphalipoproteinemia
Familial chylomicronemia syndrome
Secondary dyslipidemia
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Screening
Treatment
Lipid-lowering diet
Lipid-lowering medications
Procedures to reduce cholesterol
Treating causes of elevated cholesterol
Monitoring treatment
More Information
Hypolipidemia
Abetalipoproteinemia
Chylomicron retention disease (Anderson disease)
Hypobetalipoproteinemia
Diabetes Mellitus and Low Blood Sugar (Hypoglycemia)
Overview of Diabetes Mellitus
Blood sugar
Insulin
Types 1 and 2 Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes
Prediabetes
Other Types and Causes of Diabetes
Diagnosis
Blood glucose measurement
Hemoglobin A1C
Oral glucose tolerance test
Complications of Diabetes
Treatment Considerations in Older Adults and People With Medical Problems
Education
Diet
Exercise
Medication
Monitoring blood glucose levels
Hypoglycemia
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Causes
Screening and Prevention
Screening
Prevention
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
General treatment of type 2 diabetes
Medication treatment of diabetes
Foot care
Vaccination for people with diabetes
Monitoring Type 2 Diabetes
Complications
Long-term complications of type 2 diabetes
Screening for complications of type 2 diabetes
More Information
Acute Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (HHS)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Alcoholic Ketoacidosis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Long-Term Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
Causes of Diabetes Complications
Types of Diabetes Complications
Eye problems in diabetes
Kidney damage in diabetes
Nerve damage in diabetes
Foot problems in diabetes
Complications of large blood vessels in diabetes
Heart failure and cardiomyopathy in diabetes
Infections in diabetes
Liver damage in diabetes
Monitoring and Preventing Diabetes Complications
Prevention of hypoglycemia
More Information
Medication Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
Insulin Replacement Therapy
Insulin forms
Choice of insulin type and dose
Hypoglycemia
Insulin antibodies
Allergic reaction to insulin
Skin reactions to insulin
Oral Antihyperglycemic Medications
Injectable Antihyperglycemic Medications
Disease-Modifying Medication
Other Medications Given to People With Diabetes
More Information
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Causes
Screening and Prevention
Screening
Prevention
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Medication treatment of diabetes
Diabetes education
Diet for people with diabetes
Exercise for people with diabetes
Foot care
Vaccination for people with diabetes
Pancreas and islet cell transplantation
Monitoring Type 1 Diabetes Treatment
Diabetes treatment goals
Monitoring blood glucose levels
Hemoglobin A1C
Fructosamine
Urine testing
Complications
Long-term complications of type 1 diabetes
Screening for complications of type 1 diabetes
More Information
Hypoglycemia
Causes
Hypoglycemia caused by medications
Hypoglycemia that occurs during fasting
Hypoglycemia that occurs after eating
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Immediate treatment of hypoglycemia
Treatment of the cause of hypoglycemia
Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome
Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery
Types
Sleeve gastrectomy
Roux-en-Y gastric bypass
Revisional procedures
Biliopancreatic diversion with a duodenal switch
Single anastomosis duodeno-ileal bypass with sleeve gastrectomy
Endoscopic procedures
Adjustable gastric banding
Evaluation
After Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery
Possible problems
Weight loss
Follow-up
Other benefits
Metabolic Syndrome
Diagnosis
Treatment
Obesity
Causes
Physical inactivity
Diet
Genes
Background
Pregnancy and menopause
Aging
Lifestyle
Hormones
Eating disorders
Medications
Symptoms
Complications
Diagnosis
Treatment
Changes in diet
Physical activity
Changes in behavior
Medications
Obesity in Older Adults
Parathyroid Disorders
Overview of Parathyroid Function
Parathyroid hormone function
Hyperparathyroidism
Primary hyperparathyroidism
Secondary hyperparathyroidism
Tertiary hyperparathyroidism
Symptoms
Complications
Diagnosis
Treatment
Surgery
Hyperparathyroidism in kidney failure
Hypoparathyroidism
Postoperative hypoparathyroidism
Inherited hypoparathyroidism
Pseudohypoparathyroidism
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Parathyroid Tumors
Parathyroid Adenoma
Parathyroid Cancer
Pituitary Gland Disorders
Overview of the Pituitary Gland
Anterior lobe hormones
Posterior lobe hormones
Pituitary gland malfunction
Enlargement of the Pituitary Gland
Hypopituitarism
Causes
Causes affecting primarily the pituitary
Causes affecting primarily the hypothalamus
Symptoms
Growth hormone deficiency
Deficiency of gonadotropins (follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone deficiency
Adrenocorticotropic hormone deficiency
Prolactin deficiency
Hypothalamus deficiencies
Pituitary apoplexy
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment of cause
Hormone replacement
Arginine
Vasopressin
Deficiency (Central Diabetes Insipidus)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Gigantism and Acromegaly
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Surgery
Medications
Radiation therapy
Prolactinoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Empty Sella Syndrome
Polyglandular Deficiency Syndromes
IPEX Syndrome
POEMS Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Polyglandular Deficiency Syndromes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Drug-Induced Autoimmune Endocrine Disorders
Thyroid Gland Disorders
Simple Nontoxic Goiter
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hashimoto Thyroiditis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of the Thyroid Gland
Thyroid hormones
How the body adjusts thyroid hormones
Diagnostic Tests
Thyroid function blood tests
Thyroid ultrasound and radioactive uptake thyroid scan
Other thyroid tests
Screening for thyroid disorders
Hyperthyroidism
Causes
Symptoms
Graves disease
Thyroid storm
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment with medications
Treatment with radioactive iodine
Other treatments
Hypothyroidism
Causes
Symptoms
Myxedema coma
Diagnosis
Treatment
Subacute Thyroiditis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Silent Lymphocytic Thyroiditis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Thyroid Cancer
Thyroid nodules
Types of Thyroid Cancer
Papillary thyroid cancer
Follicular thyroid cancer
Oncocytic thyroid carcinoma
Anaplastic thyroid cancer
Medullary thyroid cancer
