Warts are common, benign, epidermal lesions caused by human papillomavirus infection. They can appear anywhere on the body in a variety of morphologies. Diagnosis is by examination. Warts are usually self limited but may be treated by destructive methods (eg, excision, cautery, cryotherapy, liquid nitrogen) and topical or injected agents.
Warts are almost universal in the population; they affect patients of all ages but are most common among children and are uncommon among older adults.
Etiology of Warts
Warts are caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infection; there are over 100 HPV subtypes (1).
Trauma and maceration facilitate initial epidermal inoculation. Spread may then occur by autoinoculation. Local and systemic immune factors appear to influence spread; immunosuppressed patients (especially those with HIV infection or a kidney transplant) are at particular risk of developing generalized lesions that are difficult to treat.
Humoral immunity provides resistance to HPV infection; cellular immunity helps established infection to regress.
Довідковий матеріал щодо етіології
1. Haley CT, Mui UN, Vangipuram R, et al: Human oncoviruses: Mucocutaneous manifestation, pathogenesis, therapeutics, and prevention. Papillomaviruses and Merkel cell polyomavirus. J Am Acad Dermatol 81:1–21, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2018.09.062
Symptoms and Signs of Warts
Warts are named by their clinical appearance and location; different forms are linked to different HPV types (for unusual manifestations, see table Wart Variants and Other HPV-Related Lesions). Most types are usually asymptomatic. However, some warts are tender, so those on weight-bearing surfaces (eg, bottom of the feet) may cause mild pain.
Варіанти бородавок та інші ураження, пов’язані з ВПЛ
Clinical Form | Human Papillomavirus Type | Description |
|---|---|---|
16, 55 | Flat, brown, verrucous papules on the vulva and penis | |
Buschke-Löwenstein tumor | 6 | Large cauliflower-like tumors on the anogenital surface |
Butcher’s wart (meat handler’s wart) | 7 | Common warts, usually benign, that occur on the hands of meat workers May appear more cauliflower-like than common warts |
Common warts | 1, 2, 4, 7, 75–77 | Sharply demarcated, rough, round or irregular, firm, and light gray, yellow, brown, or gray-black nodules 2 to 10 mm in diameter |
Epidermodysplasia verruciformis | 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21–25, 36–39, 47, 49 | Flat-topped white, brown, or red papules or larger more raised papules resembling a seborrheic keratosis Rare, inherited predisposition to developing widespread HPV infection and often skin cancer (such as squamous cell carcinoma) as early as a patient's 20s |
External genital warts | 6 and 11 (most commonly), and 1a, 2, 4, 7, 16, 18, 27b, 27, 33, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 57b, 57c, 61, 65, 72, 81, 89† | Discrete flat to broad-based smooth to velvety papules to rough and pedunculated excrescences on the perineal, perirectal, labial, and penile areas |
Flat warts (plane warts) | 3, 10, 26–29, 41 | Smooth, flat-topped, yellow-brown, pink, or skin-colored papules |
77 | Thought to be a well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma | |
Laryngeal papillomas | 6, 11 | One or more wart-like lesions on the larynx or elsewhere in the respiratory tract Called recurrent respiratory papillomatosis in children |
Oral focal epithelial hyperplasia (Heck disease) | 13, 32 | Multiple pale, flat-topped, cobblestoned papules in the lining of the mouth |
Oral papillomas | 2, 6, 7, 11, 16, 18, 32, 57 | Common, painless lesion anywhere in the mouth |
16 (predominantly), 18 | Can involve the tongue, tonsils, soft palate, or the walls of the pharynx | |
Palmar and plantar warts | 1, 2, 4 | Are often tender and plantar warts can make walking and standing uncomfortable |
Periungual warts | 1, 2, 4, 7‡ | Thickened, fissured, cauliflower-like skin around the nail plate, usually asymptomatic, but can be painful as they enlarge |
Warts in kidney transplant patients | 75–77 | Often multiple and difficult to treat |
HPV-associated mucosal and anogenital cancers | 16 and 18 (most commonly), and 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68 | Various manifestations, see anal cancer, cervical cancer, penile cancer, vaginal cancer, vulvar cancer |
* Affected women and female partners of affected patients should be frequently evaluated for cervical cancer. | ||
† Al-Awadhi R, Al-Mutairi N, Albatineh AN, Chehadeh W: Association of HPV genotypes with external anogenital warts: A cross sectional study. BMC Infect Dis 19(1):375, 2019. doi: 10.1186/s12879-019-4005-4 | ||
‡ Most often caused by subtypes that cause common warts. | ||
HPV = human papillomavirus. | ||
Some data adapted from Cubie HA: Diseases associated with human papillomavirus infection. Virology 445(1-2):21–34, 2013. doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2013.06.007 | ||
Часті бородавки
Common warts (verrucae vulgaris) are caused by HPV types 1, 2, 4, and 7 and occasionally other types in immunosuppressed patients (eg, 75 to 77).
They are usually asymptomatic but sometimes cause mild pain when they are located on a weight-bearing surface (eg, bottom of the feet).
Common warts are sharply demarcated, rough, round or irregular, firm, and light gray, yellow, brown, or gray-black nodules 2 to 10 mm in diameter. They appear most often on sites subject to trauma (eg, fingers, elbows, knees, face) but may spread elsewhere. Variants of unusual shape (eg, pedunculated or resembling a cauliflower) appear most frequently on the head and neck, especially the scalp and beard area.
Долонні бородавки та підошовні бородавки
These warts are caused by HPV types 1, 2, and 4. They occur on the palms and soles.
Palmar and plantar warts are flattened by pressure and surrounded by cornified epithelium. They are often tender, and plantar warts can make walking and standing uncomfortable. They can be distinguished from corns and calluses by their tendency to pinpoint bleeding when the surface is pared away.
Плоскі бородавки
Flat warts are caused by HPV types 3 and 10 and occasionally 26 to 29 and 41. They are more common among children and young adults and develop by autoinoculation.
These warts are smooth, flat-topped, yellow-brown, pink, or skin-colored papules, most often located on the face and along scratch marks.
They generally cause no symptoms but are usually difficult to treat.
Мозаїчні бородавки
Mosaic warts are plaques formed by the coalescence of myriad smaller, closely set plantar warts. As with other plantar warts, they are often tender.
Ниткоподібні бородавки
These warts are long, narrow, frondlike growths, usually located on the eyelids, face, neck, or lips. They are usually asymptomatic.
This morphologically distinct variant of the common wart is benign and easy to treat.
Навколонігтеві бородавки
Periungual warts are caused by HPV types 1, 2, 4, and 7.
These warts appear as thickened, fissured, cauliflower-like skin around the nail plate. They are usually asymptomatic, but the fissures cause pain as the warts enlarge. Patients frequently lose the cuticle and are susceptible to paronychia.
Periungual warts are more common among patients who bite their nails or who have occupations where their hands are chronically wet such as dishwashers and bartenders.
Бородавки статевих органів
Genital warts are caused by HPV type 6 or 11 (most commonly) and by types 1a, 2, 4, 7, 16, 18, 27b, 27, 33, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 57b, 57c, 61, 72, 81, and 89 (1).
These warts manifest as discrete flat to broad-based smooth to velvety papules to rough and pedunculated excrescences on the perineal, perirectal, labial, and penile areas. They are usually asymptomatic, but perirectal warts often itch.
Infection with high-risk HPV types (most notably types 16 and 18 but also types 31, 33, 35, and 39) is the main cause of cervical cancer.
This photo shows the typical rough, pedunculated appearance of genital warts on the glans.
© Springer Science+Business Media
This photo shows pink and raised genital warts (arrows) at the coronal sulcus of the penis.
© Springer Science+Business Media
Genital warts on the vulva may be raised and light-colored with an irregular, rough surface.
Image courtesy of Joe Millar via the Public Health Image Library of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
This photo shows the typical rough, pedunculated appearance of genital warts on the glans.
© Springer Science+Business Media
This photo shows pink and raised genital warts (arrows) at the coronal sulcus of the penis.
© Springer Science+Business Media
Genital warts on the vulva may be raised and light-colored with an irregular, rough surface.
Image courtesy of Joe Millar via the Public Health Image Library of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Довідковий матеріал щодо генітальних бородавок
1. Al-Awadhi R, Al-Mutairi N, Albatineh AN, Chehadeh W: Association of HPV genotypes with external anogenital warts: A cross sectional study. BMC Infect Dis 19(1):375, 2019. doi: 10.1186/s12879-019-4005-4
Diagnosis of Warts
Clinical evaluation
Rarely biopsy
Diagnosis of warts is based on clinical appearance; biopsy is rarely needed.
A cardinal sign of warts is the absence of skin lines crossing their surface and the presence of pinpoint black dots (thrombosed capillaries) or bleeding when warts are shaved. Shaving is typically done without anesthesia.
Цінні поради та підводні камені
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Differential diagnosis of warts includes the following:
Corns (clavi): May obscure skin lines but do not have thrombosed capillaries when shaved
Lichen planus: May mimic flat warts but may be accompanied by lacy oral lesions and Wickham striae and may be symmetrically distributed
Seborrheic keratosis: May appear more stuck on, be pigmented, and include keratin-filled horn cysts
Skin tags (achrocordon): May be pedunculated and smoother and more skin-colored than warts
Squamous cell carcinoma: May be ulcerated, persistent, and grow irregularly
DNA typing of the virus is available in some medical centers but is generally not needed.
Treatment of Warts
Topical irritants (eg, salicylic acid, cantharidin, podophyllum resin)
Destructive methods (eg, cryosurgery, electrocautery, curettage, excision, laser)
Other topical therapies, intralesional injection therapies, or combinations
There are no firm indications for treatment of warts.
Treatment should be considered for warts that are cosmetically unacceptable, in locations that interfere with function, or painful. Patients should be motivated to adhere to treatment, which may require a prolonged course and can be unsuccessful. Treatments are less successful in patients with immunocompromise.
Mechanisms of many irritants include eliciting an immune response to HPV. Such irritants include salicylic acid (SCA), trichloroacetic acid, 5-fluorouracil, podophyllum resin (eg, podofilox), tretinoin, and cantharidin. Sinecatechins can be used for genital warts.
Topical imiquimod 5% cream induces skin cells to locally produce antiviral cytokines. Topical cidofovir and contact immunotherapy (eg, squaric acid dibutyl ester and Candida antigen) have been used to treat warts. Warts can first be soaked in hot water at 113° F for 30 minutes ≥ 3 times/week. After soaking, the skin is more permeable to topical agents. Candida antigen can also be injected directly into the lesions.
Oral treatments include cimetidine (which has questionable efficacy), isotretinoin, and zinc. IV cidofovir can also be used. In most instances, modalities should be combined to increase the likelihood of success. Direct antiviral effects can be achieved with intralesional injection of bleomycin and interferon alfa-2b, but these treatments are reserved for the most recalcitrant warts.
These drugs can be used in combination with a destructive method (eg, cryosurgery, electrocautery, curettage, excision, laser) because even though a wart may be physically removed by a destructive method, virus may remain in the tissues and cause recurrence.
Intralesional injections can be used to treat warts that are refractory, multiple, or in sensitive areas (1).
For treatment of anogenital warts, see also treatment of human papillomavirus infection.
Часті бородавки
In immunocompetent patients, common warts usually spontaneously regress within 2 to 4 years, but some linger for many years. Numerous treatments are available. Destructive methods include electrocautery, cryosurgery with liquid nitrogen, and laser surgery. Salicylic acid preparations are also commonly used.
Which method is used depends on the location and severity of involvement.
Salicylic acid (SCA) is the most common topical agent used. SCA is available as a liquid or plaster or impregnated within tape. For example, SCA 17% liquid can be used on the fingers, and SCA 40% plaster can be used on the soles. Patients apply SCA to their warts at night and leave it on for 8 to 48 hours depending on the site. SCA may be occluded with tape to enhance penetration. SCA may be compounded with 5-fluorouracil in various formulations for treatment of common warts on the palms and soles.
Cantharidin (0.7% on thin-skinned areas and 1% on thicker-skinned areas) can be used alone or in combination with SCA 30% and podophyllum 5% in a collodion base. Cantharidin alone is removed with soap and water after 6 hours; cantharidin with SCA or podophyllum is removed in 2 hours. The longer these agents are left in contact with the skin, the more brisk the blistering response.
Cryosurgery is painful but extremely effective. Electrodesiccation with curettage, laser surgery, or both is effective and indicated for isolated lesions but may cause scarring.
Recurrent or new warts occur in about 35% of patients within 1 year; therefore, methods that scar should be avoided as much as possible so that multiple scars do not accumulate. When possible, scarring treatments are reserved for cosmetically unimportant areas and recalcitrant warts.
Ниткоподібні бородавки
Treatment of filiform warts is removal with scalpel, scissors, curettage, or liquid nitrogen. Liquid nitrogen should be applied so that up to 2 mm of skin surrounding the wart turns white. Damage to the skin occurs when the skin thaws, which usually takes 10 to 20 seconds. Blisters can occur 24 to 48 hours after treatment with liquid nitrogen.
Care must be taken when treating cosmetically sensitive sites, such as the face and neck, because hypopigmentation or hyperpigmentation frequently occurs after treatment with liquid nitrogen. Patients with darkly pigmented skin can develop permanent depigmentation.
Плоскі бородавки
Treatment of flat warts is difficult, and flat warts are often longer-lasting than common warts, recalcitrant to treatments, and, in cosmetically important areas, make the most effective (destructive) methods less desirable.
Usual first-line treatment is daily tretinoin (retinoic acid 0.05% cream). If peeling is not sufficient for wart removal, another irritant (eg, 5% benzoyl peroxide) or 5% SCA cream can be applied sequentially with tretinoin. Imiquimod 5% cream can be used alone or in combination with topical agents or destructive measures. Topical 5-fluorouracil 1% or 5% cream can also be used.
Підошовні бородавки
Treatment of plantar warts is vigorous maceration with 40% SCA plaster kept in place for several days. The combination of 17% SCA and 2.5% 5-fluorouracil under tape occlusion for 8 to 12 hours is also effective. The wart is then debrided while damp and soft, followed by destruction by freezing or using caustics (eg, 30 to 70% trichloroacetic acid).
Other destructive treatments (eg, CO2 laser, pulsed-dye laser, various acids) are often effective.
Навколонігтеві бородавки
Combination therapy with liquid nitrogen and imiquimod 5% cream, tretinoin, or SCA is effective and usually safer than liquid nitrogen alone or cautery.
Using liquid nitrogen and cautery to treat periungual and lateral finger warts should be done carefully because overly aggressive treatment can cause permanent nail deformity and rarely nerve injury.
Цінні поради та підводні камені
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Непіддатливі бородавки
Several methods are available for the treatment of recalcitrant warts, but long-term value and risks are not fully known.
Intralesional injection of small amounts of a 0.1% solution of bleomycin in saline often cures stubborn plantar and periungual warts. However, Raynaud syndrome or vascular damage may develop in injected digits, especially when the solution is injected at the base of the digit, so caution is warranted.
Intralesional injection of Candida antigen has also been reported to be moderately effective for recalcitrant warts.
Interferon, especially interferon alfa, given intralesionally (3 times/week for 3 to 5 weeks) or intramuscularly, has also cleared recalcitrant skin and genital warts.
Extensive warts sometimes abate or clear with oral isotretinoin or acitretin.
The 9-valent HPV vaccine has been reported as useful for recalcitrant warts in children, but efficacy of this intervention is not proved (2).
Довідкові матеріали щодо лікування
1. Muse ME, Stiff KM, Glines KR, et al: A review of intralesional wart therapy. Dermatol Online J 26(3):13030/qt3md9z8gj, 2020.
2. Kost Y, Zhu TH, Blasiak RC: Clearance of recalcitrant warts in a pediatric patient following administration of the nine-valent human papillomavirus vaccine. Pediatr Dermatol 37(4):748–749, 2020. doi: 10.1111/pde.14150
Prognosis for Warts
Many warts regress spontaneously (particularly common warts); others persist for years and recur at the same or different sites, even with treatment. Factors influencing recurrence appear to be related to the patient’s overall immune status as well as local factors. Patients subject to local trauma (eg, athletes, mechanics, butchers) may have recalcitrant and recurrent HPV infection.
Genital HPV infection has malignant potential, but malignant transformation is rare in HPV-induced skin warts, except among immunosuppressed patients.
Prevention of Warts
HPV vaccines protect against some of the types of HPV that cause warts and cancer.
Ключові моменти
Cutaneous warts are caused by human papillomaviruses, are very common, and have multiple forms.
Spread is usually by autoinoculation and is facilitated by trauma and maceration.
Most warts are asymptomatic but can be mildly painful with pressure.
Most warts resolve spontaneously, particularly common warts.
Treatments, when indicated, commonly include topical irritants (eg, salicylic acid, cantharidin, podophyllum resin) and/or destructive methods (eg, cryosurgery, electrocautery, curettage, excision, laser).
Recalcitrant warts can be treated with other intralesional and oral agents as well as the 9-valent HPV vaccine.
