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  1. <Health Topics
    Kidney Disorders
    Symptoms of Kidney Disorders
    • Blood in Urine
      • Causes
        • Common causes
        • Less common causes
      • Evaluation
        • Warning signs
        • When to see a doctor
        • What the doctor does
        • Testing
      • Treatment
      • Key Points
    • Excessive or Frequent Urination
      • Causes
      • Evaluation
        • Warning signs
        • When to see a doctor
        • What the doctor does
        • Testing
      • Treatment
      • Essentials for Older Adults
      • Key Points
    Diagnosis of Kidney Disorders
    • Kidney Biopsy
    • Evaluation of Kidney Disorders
      • History
      • Physical Examination
      • Testing
    • Kidney Function Tests
    • Kidneys
      • Functions of the Kidneys
        • Water and electrolyte balance
        • Filtration and excretion
        • Regulation of blood pressure
        • Secretion of hormones
    Disorders Affecting Kidney Tubular Cells
    • Tubulointerstitial Nephritis
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
        • Acute tubulointerstitial nephritis
        • Chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • Acute tubulointerstitial nephritis
        • Chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis
      • Prognosis
    • Acute Tubular Necrosis
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
      • Prevention
    • Reflux Nephropathy
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    Blood Vessel Disorders of the Kidneys
    • Hypertensive Arteriolar Nephrosclerosis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
      • More Information
    • Cortical Necrosis of the Kidneys
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    • Overview of Blood Vessel Disorders of the Kidneys
      • More Information
    • Blockage of the Renal Arteries
      • Causes
        • Fibromuscular dysplasia
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    • Atheroembolic Kidney Disease
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    • Renal Vein Thrombosis
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    Cystic Kidney Disorders
    • Acquired Kidney Cysts
      • More Information
    • Congenital Cystic Dysplasia of the Kidneys
      • More Information
    • Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)
      • Symptoms
      • Complications
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    • Nephronophthisis and Autosomal Dominant Tubulointerstitial Kidney Disease
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    • Medullary Sponge Kidney
      • More Information
    Dialysis
    • Dialysis
      • Types of Dialysis
        • Hemodialysis
        • Peritoneal dialysis
        • Choice of technique
      • Special Considerations
        • Diet
        • Medical considerations
        • Psychosocial considerations
        • Considerations in children
      • More Information
    Disorders of Kidney Tubules
    • Introduction to Disorders of Kidney Tubules
    • Renal Tubular Acidosis (RTA)
      • Symptoms
        • Types 1 and 2
        • Type 4
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • Types 1 and 2
        • Type 4
      • More Information
    • Renal Glucosuria
      • More Information
    • Arginine Vasopressin Resistance
      • Causes
        • Hereditary arginine vasopressin resistance
        • Acquired arginine vasopressin resistance
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prognosis
      • More Information
    • Fanconi Syndrome
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    • Liddle Syndrome
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    • Pseudohypoaldosteronism Type I
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    Kidney Failure
    • Rhabdomyolysis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Overview of Kidney Failure
    • Acute Kidney Injury
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
        • Physical examination
        • Blood tests
        • Urine tests
        • Imaging
      • Treatment
        • Dietary measures
        • Medications
        • Dialysis
        • Treament of acute kidney injury caused by obstruction
      • Prognosis
    • Chronic Kidney Disease
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • Restricting protein
        • Controlling acidosis
        • Lowering triglyceride levels
        • Restricting sodium and potassium
        • Controlling phosphorus levels
        • Treating complications
        • Treating advanced chronic kidney disease
      • Prognosis
      • More Information
    Kidney Filtering Disorders
    • Overview of Kidney Filtering Disorders
      • More Information
    • Glomerulonephritis
      • Causes
        • Acute glomerulonephritis
        • Chronic glomerulonephritis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
        • Determining the cause of glomerulonephritis
      • Treatment
        • Acute glomerulonephritis
        • Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis
        • Chronic glomerulonephritis
      • Prognosis
      • More Information
    • Nephrotic Syndrome
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
        • Determining the cause of nephrotic syndrome
      • Treatment
        • Treatment of the cause of nephrotic syndrome
        • Medications
        • Dietary management and other measures
      • Prognosis
      • Prevention
      • More Information
    • Asymptomatic Proteinuria and Hematuria
      • More Information
    • Alport Syndrome
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • More Information
    Acid-Base Balance
    • Overview of Acid-Base Balance
      • Control of Acid-Base Balance
        • Role of the lungs
        • Role of the kidneys
        • Buffer systems
      • Types of Acid-Base Disorders
        • Types of acidosis and alkalosis
        • Compensation for acid-base disorders
    • Acidosis
      • Blood pH
      • Causes
        • Metabolic acidosis
        • Respiratory acidosis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Alkalosis
      • Blood pH
      • Causes
        • Metabolic alkalosis
        • Respiratory alkalosis
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    Water Balance
    • About Body Water
      • Maintaining water balance
    • Dehydration
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
      • Prevention
    • Overhydration
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    Electrolyte Balance
    • Overview of Sodium's Role in the Body
      • Controlling blood volume
      • Maintaining fluid and sodium balance in older adults
    • Overview of Potassium's Role in the Body
      • More Information
    • Overview of Calcium's Role in the Body
      • More Information
    • Overview of Magnesium's Role in the Body
      • More Information
    • Overview of Phosphate's Role in the Body
      • More Information
    • Overview of Electrolytes
    • Syndrome of Inappropriate Secretion of Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH)
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hypophosphatemia (Low Level of Phosphate in the Blood)
      • Acute hypophosphatemia
      • Chronic hypophosphatemia
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hyponatremia (Low Level of Sodium in the Blood)
      • Causes
        • Role of vasopressin
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hypernatremia (High Level of Sodium in the Blood)
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hypokalemia (Low Level of Potassium in the Blood)
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hyperkalemia (High Level of Potassium in the Blood)
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
        • Mild hyperkalemia
        • Moderate to severe hyperkalemia
    • Hypocalcemia (Low Level of Calcium in the Blood)
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hypercalcemia (High Level of Calcium in the Blood)
      • Causes
        • Hyperparathyroidism
        • Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hypomagnesemia (Low Level of Magnesium in the Blood)
      • Causes
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hypermagnesemia (High Level of Magnesium in the Blood)
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
    • Hyperphosphatemia (High Level of Phosphate in the Blood)
      • Symptoms
      • Diagnosis
      • Treatment
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