Gastroenteritis in Children

Viruses are the most common cause of gastroenteritis in the United States. Four categories of viruses cause most gastroenteritis. The two most common are

Most other viral cases are caused by astrovirus or adenovirus.

Children usually contract viral gastroenteritis from other children who have had it or who have been exposed to it, such as those in child care centers, schools, and other crowded settings. Viral gastroenteritis is very contagious and spreads particularly easily from child to child.

Fecal-oral transmission is the usual way that viral gastroenteritis spreads. Fecal-oral means that viruses in the diarrhea stool (feces) from an infected person are taken into the mouth of another person. Of course, people do not ingest stool directly. Instead, children with diarrhea and/or their caretakers may have some infected stool on their hands (particularly when they do not thoroughly wash their hands). Then any objects they touch (such as a diaper, a toy, or food) also become contaminated with infected stool. Other children who touch that object and then put their hands and fingers in and near their mouth may get infected by the virus. Viral gastroenteritis can also be spread by sneezing and spitting.

Norovirus has become the most common cause of gastroenteritis in all age groups, including children, in the United States since the introduction of rotavirus vaccines. This virus commonly affects children between 6 months and 18 months of age. Infections occur year-round, but 80% occur from November to April. Most people are infected after swallowing contaminated food or water. Because norovirus is highly contagious, infection can easily be spread from person to person. Norovirus causes most cases of gastroenteritis epidemics that occur on cruise ships and in nursing homes.

Rotavirus Rotavirus Infection Rotavirus is a common and very contagious virus that causes vomiting and diarrhea. Rotavirus is a viral infection of the digestive tract that can cause severe dehydration. Typical symptoms include... read more is the most common cause of severe, dehydrating diarrhea among infants and children worldwide. The frequency has decreased since the introduction of rotavirus vaccines Rotavirus Vaccine The rotavirus vaccine is a live-virus vaccine that helps protect against gastroenteritis caused by rotavirus, which causes vomiting, diarrhea, and, if symptoms persist, dehydration and organ... read more . It usually affects infants and toddlers 3 to 15 months of age. Rotavirus is highly contagious. Most infections are spread by fecal-oral transmission. Infected infants may spread the infection to adults. In temperate climates, rotavirus infections are most common in the winter months and are less common in the summer. In tropical climates, they can occur year-round.

Astrovirus can infect people of all ages but usually infects infants and young children. Infection is most common in the winter and is spread by fecal-oral transmission.

Adenovirus most commonly affects children under the age of 2. Infections occur year-round and increase slightly in the summer. The infection is spread by fecal-oral transmission.

The bacteria that most commonly cause gastroenteritis include

Children can contract bacterial gastroenteritis by

Bacteria may grow in many types of foods that have been left out and not refrigerated (potential problem situations include buffets and picnics). Staphylococcus Staphylococcus aureus Infections Staphylococcus aureus is the most dangerous of all of the many common staphylococcal bacteria. These gram-positive, sphere-shaped (coccal) bacteria (see figure ) often cause skin infections... read more bacteria in contaminated food may secrete a toxin that causes sudden vomiting and diarrhea. Gastroenteritis contracted from food containing microorganisms or bacterial toxins is sometimes called food poisoning Overview of Food Poisoning Food poisoning results from eating a plant or animal that contains a toxin. The poisoning occurs after ingesting poisonous species of mushrooms or plants or contaminated fish or shellfish. The... read more .

Children can contract Salmonella Salmonella Infections The gram-negative bacteria Salmonella typically cause diarrhea and sometimes cause a more serious infection, typhoid fever. People are usually infected when they eat contaminated food... read more by contact with reptiles (turtles or lizards), birds, or amphibians (frogs or salamanders) and rarely can contract E. coli Escherichia coli Infections Escherichia coli (E. coli) are a group of gram-negative bacteria that normally reside in the intestine of healthy people, but some strains can cause infection in the digestive... read more by contact with animals at petting zoos. Occasionally, some bacteria are transmitted by dogs or cats with diarrhea.

Children can contract gastroenteritis by swallowing or swimming in contaminated water, such as from wells, streams, water parks, and swimming pools (called recreational water illness).

Infection with the bacteria Clostridioides difficile may occur in children who have taken antibiotics or who have finished a course of antibiotics in the last 6 to 10 weeks ( see Clostridioides (formerly Clostridium) difficile–Induced Colitis Clostridioides (formerly Clostridium) difficile–Induced Colitis Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile)–induced colitis is an inflammation of the large intestine (colon) that results in diarrhea. The inflammation is caused by toxin produced... read more ). Some children may develop Clostridioides difficile infection after being in the hospital, and cases can occur in communities. Clostridioides difficile is now probably the most common bacterial cause of diarrhea in the United States.

Gastroenteritis caused by parasites (such as Giardia intestinalis Giardiasis Giardiasis is an infection of the small intestine caused by the single-celled protozoan parasite Giardia. The main symptoms are abdominal cramping and diarrhea. People may have abdominal... read more and Cryptosporidium parvum Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidiosis is an intestinal infection caused by Cryptosporidium, a protozoan parasite. The main symptoms are abdominal cramping and diarrhea. People acquire the infection by consuming... read more ) is usually acquired by drinking contaminated water or by fecal-oral transmission (which is known to occur in day care centers). The parasite Entamoeba histolytica Amebiasis Amebiasis is an infection of the large intestine and sometimes the liver and other organs that is caused by the single-celled protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica, an ameba. The amebas... read more is a common cause of bloody diarrhea in areas where sanitation is inadequate but is rare in the United States.

Gastroenteritis may result from ingesting chemical toxins Overview of Food Poisoning Food poisoning results from eating a plant or animal that contains a toxin. The poisoning occurs after ingesting poisonous species of mushrooms or plants or contaminated fish or shellfish. The... read more . These toxins can be found in plants, such as poisonous mushrooms Mushroom (Toadstool) Poisoning Many species of mushroom are poisonous and can cause different symptoms depending on the type of mushroom. Different species of mushrooms produce different toxins with different effects. Even... read more , or in certain kinds of exotic seafood Fish and Shellfish Poisoning Certain types of fresh or frozen fish or shellfish may contain toxins that can cause a variety of symptoms. Vomiting and diarrhea ( gastroenteritis) caused by toxins is different from gastroenteritis... read more . Children who eat these substances may develop gastroenteritis. Children also can develop gastroenteritis after drinking water or eating food that is contaminated by chemicals such as arsenic, lead Lead Poisoning Lead poisoning affects many parts of the body, including the brain, nerves, kidneys, liver, and blood. Children are particularly susceptible because their nervous system is still developing... read more , mercury, or cadmium.

Many drugs cause diarrhea. Children who are given (or who accidentally ingest) certain drugs (such as antibiotics or antacids) may develop gastroenteritis (see sidebar Gastroenteritis as a Side Effect of Drugs Gastroenteritis as a Side Effect of Drugs ).

Viruses cause watery diarrhea. Stools rarely contain mucus or blood.

Rotavirus may last 5 to 7 days in infants and young children. Vomiting occurs in most children, and some have fever. The diarrhea is watery but does not contain blood. The diarrhea is more likely in children to cause severe dehydration Dehydration in Children Dehydration is loss of water from the body, usually caused by vomiting and/or diarrhea. Dehydration occurs when there is significant loss of body water and, to varying amounts, electrolytes... read more and even death.

Norovirus causes more vomiting than diarrhea in children and lasts only 1 to 2 days. Children have abdominal cramps and may have fever, headache, and muscle aches.

Adenovirus causes mild vomiting 1 to 2 days after diarrhea starts. The diarrhea can last 1 to 2 weeks.

Astrovirus symptoms are similar to a mild rotavirus infection.

Bacteria are likely to cause fever and bloody diarrhea and some types cause abdominal cramps. Certain kinds of bacteria, such as some strains of E. coli and Shigella, produce toxins that can cause a complication called hemolytic-uremic syndrome Hemolytic-Uremic Syndrome (HUS) Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) is a serious disorder that usually occurs in children and involves the formation of small blood clots throughout the body that block the flow of blood to vital... read more , which can cause severe anemia and acute kidney injury.

Parasites typically cause diarrhea that may last for a long time and may cause diarrhea that comes and goes. The diarrhea is usually not bloody. Children may be very tired and lose weight when they have long-lasting diarrhea caused by a parasitic infection.

The most common complication of severe gastroenteritis is dehydration Dehydration in Children Dehydration is loss of water from the body, usually caused by vomiting and/or diarrhea. Dehydration occurs when there is significant loss of body water and, to varying amounts, electrolytes... read more (too little fluid in the body), which occurs when a lot of fluid is lost in vomit and stool. Children who are slightly dehydrated are thirsty, but seriously dehydrated children become listless, irritable, or sluggish (lethargic).

Infants are much more likely than older children to become dehydrated and develop serious side effects. Infants who are dehydrated need medical care right away.

Danger signs of dehydration in infants that require immediate medical care include the following:

However, it can be hard to tell how much urine diapered children who are having frequent watery stools are producing. It is easier to identify a decrease in the passage of urine and excessive thirst in older children.

Children should be encouraged to drink fluids even if just in small, frequent amounts. Infants should continue to breastfeed or drink formula in addition to an oral electrolyte solution (oral rehydration solution Treatment Dehydration is loss of water from the body, usually caused by vomiting and/or diarrhea. Dehydration occurs when there is significant loss of body water and, to varying amounts, electrolytes... read more —available as powders and liquids in pharmacies and some grocery stores). Juice, soda, carbonated beverages, teas, sports drinks, and beverages containing caffeine should not be given to infants and young children. These drinks may contain too much sugar, which can worsen diarrhea, and contain too few salts (electrolytes), which are needed to replace those the body has lost. For adolescents, sports drinks are preferable to juice and soda because of their lower sugar content, but they still have lower amounts of electrolytes than oral electrolyte solutions. Plain water is not ideal for treating dehydration in children of any age because there are no salts in plain water.

Children who are vomiting should be given frequent small amounts of fluid to help prevent dehydration. Parents should offer the child a few sips of a liquid. If the liquid is not vomited, the sips are repeated every 10 or 15 minutes, increasing the amount given to an ounce or two after an hour or so and increased as tolerated. These larger amounts can be given less often, about every hour. Liquids are absorbed very quickly, so if the child vomits more than 10 minutes after drinking, most of the liquid has been absorbed and the liquids should be continued. The amount of liquid to give a child within a 24-hour period depends on the child’s age and weight but generally should be about 1½ to 2½ ounces of liquid for each pound the child weighs. If the child’s vomiting or diarrhea lessens, parents may try feeding a more normal diet the next day. Electrolyte solutions should not be continued alone for longer than 24 hours because of potential problems associated with inadequate nutritional intake.

Children who have diarrhea but little vomiting should get extra fluid to make up for the fluid lost in the diarrhea. But, unlike children with vomiting, they may be given larger amounts of fluid at a time and they are fed their normal diet. However, if the child has significant diarrhea, consumption of dairy products (which contain lactose) should probably be reduced. Severe gastroenteritis may decrease the child’s ability to absorb lactose, resulting in even more diarrhea.

Children who cannot keep down even sips of liquid or who have signs of severe dehydration (such as lethargy, dry mouth, lack of tears, and no urine for 6 hours or more) are in danger and should see a doctor immediately. Children who do not have these signs should see a doctor if symptoms last more than 1 or 2 days. If the dehydration is severe, the doctor may give the child fluids by vein (intravenously).

Antidiarrheal drugs such as loperamide should not be given to children under 18 years of age.

For children who have severe vomiting, doctors may give certain drugs that relieve vomiting (such as ondansetron) by mouth or intravenously.

Antibiotics are of no value when a viral infection is the cause of gastroenteritis. Doctors give antibiotics only when gastroenteritis has been caused by specific bacteria (such as Shigella or Campylobacter) that are known to respond to antibiotics.

Certain drugs (such as metronidazole and nitazoxanide) may be given for a parasitic infection.

Probiotics are organisms such as bacteria that are naturally found in the body and promote the growth of good bacteria. They are also in foods and can be taken as supplements. Probiotics, such as lactobacillus (typically present in yogurt), may slightly shorten the duration of diarrhea (perhaps by a day) if people begin taking them soon after the illness starts. However, probiotics probably do not prevent more serious consequences of gastroenteritis, such as the need for intravenous fluids or for hospitalization.