Splenic injury usually results from blunt abdominal trauma. Patients often have abdominal pain, sometimes radiating to the left shoulder, and tenderness. Diagnosis is made by CT or ultrasound. Treatment is with observation and sometimes surgical repair; rarely, splenectomy is necessary.
(See also Overview of Abdominal Trauma.)
Etiology of Splenic Injury
Significant blunt impact to the abdomen (eg, motor vehicle crash, contact sports, assaults) can damage the spleen as can penetrating trauma (eg, knife wound, gunshot wound). Splenic enlargement as a result of fulminant Epstein-Barr viral disease (infectious mononucleosis or post-transplant Epstein-Barr virus–mediated pseudolymphoma) predisposes to rupture with minimal trauma or even spontaneously. Splenic injuries range from subcapsular hematomas and small capsular lacerations to deep parenchymal lacerations, crush injury, and avulsion from the pedicle.
Classification
Splenic injuries are classified according to severity into 5 grades.
Grades of Splenic Injury
Grade | Injury |
|---|---|
1 | Subcapsular hematoma < 10% of surface area Laceration < 1 cm deep |
2 | Subcapsular hematoma 10‒50% of surface area, intraparenchymal hematoma < 5 cm Laceration 1‒3 cm deep and not involving a trabecular vessel |
3 | Subcapsular hematoma > 50% of surface area, intraparenchymal hematoma ≥ 5 cm, any expanding or ruptured hematoma Laceration > 3 cm deep or involving a trabecular vessel |
4 | Laceration involving segmental or hilar vessels that devascularizes > 25% of spleen |
5 | Completely shattered spleen Hilar vascular injury that devascularizes spleen |
Kozar RA, Crandall M, Shanmuganathan K, et al. Organ injury scaling 2018 update: Spleen, liver, and kidney. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2018;85(6):1119-1122. doi:10.1097/TA.0000000000002058 | |
Pathophysiology of Splenic Injury
The main immediate consequence of a splenic injury is hemorrhage into the peritoneal cavity. The amount of hemorrhage ranges from small to massive, depending on the nature and degree of injury. Many small lacerations, particularly in children, cease bleeding spontaneously. Larger injuries hemorrhage extensively, often causing hemorrhagic shock. A splenic hematoma sometimes ruptures, usually in the first few days, although rupture can occur from hours to even months after injury.
Symptoms and Signs of Splenic Injury
The manifestations of major hemorrhage, including hemorrhagic shock, abdominal pain, and distention, are usually clinically obvious. Lesser hemorrhage causes left upper quadrant abdominal pain, which causes referred pain to the left shoulder. Patients with unexplained left upper quadrant pain, particularly if there is evidence of hypovolemia or shock, should be asked about recent trauma. Maintain a high index of suspicion for splenic injury in patients who have left rib fractures.
Pearls & Pitfalls
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Diagnosis of Splenic Injury
Imaging (CT or ultrasound)
A splenic injury is confirmed with CT in stable patients and with bedside (point-of-care) ultrasound or exploratory laparotomy in unstable patients.
Treatment of Splenic Injury
Observation
Angioembolization
Sometimes surgical repair or splenectomy
In the past, treatment for any splenic injury was splenectomy. However, splenectomy should be avoided if possible, particularly in older patients, children, and patients with hematologic malignancy, to avoid the resulting permanent susceptibility to bacterial infections, increasing the risk of overwhelming postsplenectomy sepsis. The most common pathogen is Streptococcus pneumoniae, but other encapsulated bacteria such as Neisseria and Haemophilus species may also be involved.
Most low-grade and many high-grade splenic injuries can be managed nonoperatively. Hemodynamically stable patients who have no other indications for laparotomy (eg, hollow viscus perforation) can be observed with monitoring of vital signs and serial abdominal examinations and hemoglobin or hematocrit (Hct) levels. The need for transfusion does not mandate operative intervention, particularly when there are other associated injuries that may also cause significant hemorrhage (eg, long-bone fractures). However, there should be a predetermined transfusion threshold (typically 2 units for isolated splenic injuries) beyond which surgery should be performed to prevent morbidity and mortality. Patients with significant ongoing hemorrhage (eg, significant ongoing transfusion requirements and/or declining Hct) require laparotomy. Sometimes when patients are hemodynamically stable, angiography with selective embolization of bleeding vessels is performed. Splenic artery angioembolization reduces nonoperative management failure rates in higher grade injuries. For example, in AAST grade 4 injuries, failure rates decrease from 23% to 3% with angioembolization, and in grade 5 injuries, from 63% to 9% (1).
Similar to hepatic injuries, there is no consensus in the literature regarding duration of restricted activity, optimum length of stay in the intensive care unit (ICU) or hospital, timing of resumption of diet, or need for repeat imaging for splenic injuries managed nonoperatively. However, the more severe the injury, the more care should be taken before permitting resumption of activities that may involve heavy lifting, contact sports, or torso trauma.
When surgery is needed, hemorrhage can sometimes be controlled by suturing, topical hemostatic agents (eg, oxidized cellulose, thrombin compounds, fibrin glue), or partial splenectomy, but splenectomy is still sometimes necessary. Splenectomized patients should receive the pneumococcal vaccine; many clinicians also vaccinate against When surgery is needed, hemorrhage can sometimes be controlled by suturing, topical hemostatic agents (eg, oxidized cellulose, thrombin compounds, fibrin glue), or partial splenectomy, but splenectomy is still sometimes necessary. Splenectomized patients should receive the pneumococcal vaccine; many clinicians also vaccinate againstNeisseria and Haemophilus species.
Treatment reference
1. Podda M, De Simone B, Ceresoli M, et al. Follow-up strategies for patients with splenic trauma managed non-operatively: the 2022 World Society of Emergency Surgery consensus document. World J Emerg Surg. 2022;17(1):52. Published 2022 Oct 12. doi:10.1186/s13017-022-00457-5
Key Points
Splenic injury is common and can occur with minimal trauma if the spleen is enlarged.
The main complications are immediate bleeding and delayed hematoma rupture.
Confirm the diagnosis with CT in stable patients and with exploratory laparotomy in unstable patients.
To avoid permanently increasing the patient's susceptibility to bacterial infections (caused by splenectomy), manage splenic injuries nonoperatively when possible.
Perform laparotomy or angiography with embolization in patients who have significant ongoing transfusion requirements and/or declining Hct.
