Birth Injuries in Newborns

Head injury is the most common birth-related injury.

Head molding is not an injury. Molding refers to the normal change in shape of the baby's head that results from pressure on the head during delivery. In most births, the head is the first part to enter the birth canal. Because a fetus's skull bones are not rigidly fixed in position, the head elongates as it is pushed through the birth canal, which allows the fetus to pass through more easily. Molding does not affect the brain and does not cause problems or require treatment. The head shape gradually becomes more rounded over several days.

Swelling and bruising of the scalp is common but not serious and generally resolves within a few days.

Scalp scratches can occur when instruments (such as monitor leads attached to the scalp, forceps, or vacuum extractors Operative Vaginal Delivery Operative vaginal delivery is delivery using a vacuum extractor or forceps. A vacuum extractor consists of a small cup made of a rubberlike material that is connected to a vacuum. It is inserted... read more ) are used during a vaginal delivery.

Bleeding outside of the skull bones can lead to an accumulation of blood either above or below the thick fibrous covering (periosteum) of one of the skull bones.

A cephalhematoma is blood accumulation below the periosteum. Cephalohematomas feel soft and can increase in size after birth. Cephalohematomas disappear on their own over weeks to months and almost never require any treatment. However, they should be evaluated by the pediatrician if they become red or start to drain liquid. Sometimes some of the blood calcifies and leaves a hard lump in the scalp. The lump is not dangerous, is usually hidden by hair, and requires no treatment.

A subgaleal hemorrhage is bleeding directly under the scalp above the periosteum covering the skull bones. Blood in this area can spread and is not confined to one area like a cephalohematoma. It can cause significant blood loss and shock Shock Shock is a life-threatening condition in which blood flow to the organs is low, decreasing delivery of oxygen and thus causing organ damage and sometimes death. Blood pressure is usually low... read more , which may even require a blood transfusion Overview of Blood Transfusion A blood transfusion is the transfer of blood or a blood component from one healthy person (a donor) to a sick person (a recipient). Transfusions are given to increase the blood's ability to... read more . A subgaleal hemorrhage may result from the use of forceps or a vacuum extractor, or may result from a blood clotting problem Overview of Blood Clotting Disorders Blood clots help stop bleeding. Blood clotting (coagulation) disorders are dysfunctions in the body's ability to control the formation of blood clots. These dysfunctions may result in Too little... read more .

Fracture of one of the bones of the skull may occur before or during the birth process. Unless the skull fracture forms an indentation (depressed fracture), it generally heals rapidly without treatment.

Bleeding in and around the brain (intracranial hemorrhage) is caused by the rupture of blood vessels and may be caused by

Prematurity Preterm (Premature) Newborns A preterm newborn is a baby delivered before 37 weeks of gestation. Depending on when they are born, preterm newborns have underdeveloped organs, which may not be ready to function outside of... read more increases the risk of intracranial hemorrhage.

Sometimes, intracranial hemorrhage occurs after a normal delivery in an otherwise well newborn. The cause of bleeding in these cases is unknown.

Bleeding in the brain is much more common among very preterm infants. Newborns who have bleeding disorders (such as hemophilia Hemophilia Hemophilia is a hereditary bleeding disorder caused by a deficiency in one of two blood clotting factors: factor VIII or factor IX. Several different gene abnormalities can cause the disorder... read more ) are also at increased risk of bleeding in the brain.

Most infants with bleeding do not have symptoms, whereas others can be sluggish (lethargic), feed poorly, and/or have seizures.

Bleeding can occur in several places in and around the brain:

Newborns who have a hemorrhage may be admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) Problems in newborns may develop Before birth while the fetus is growing During labor and delivery After birth About 9% of newborns need special care after birth due to prematurity, problems... read more (NICU) for imaging tests (such as a CT scan or MRI) and monitoring, supportive care (such as warmth), fluids given by vein (intravenously), and other treatments to maintain body function.

Nerve injuries may occur before or during delivery. These injuries usually cause weakness of the muscles controlled by the affected nerve. Nerve injuries may involve the

Facial nerve injury is evident when the newborn cries and the face appears lopsided (asymmetric). The facial nerve is the nerve injured most often. This injury is caused by pressure against the nerve due to

No treatment of facial nerve injury is needed, and the muscle weakness usually resolves by 2 to 3 months of age. However, sometimes facial nerve weakness is caused by a congenital disorder rather than an injury and does not resolve.

The brachial plexus is a group of large nerves located between the neck and shoulder, leading to each arm. During a difficult delivery, one or both of the baby's arms can be stretched and injure the nerves of the brachial plexus ( see Plexus Disorders Plexus Disorders Plexuses (networks of interwoven nerve fibers from different spinal nerves) may be damaged by injury, tumors, pockets of blood (hematomas), or autoimmune reactions. Pain, weakness, and loss... read more ) and cause weakness or paralysis of part or all of the baby's arm and hand. Weakness of the shoulder and elbow is called Erb palsy, and weakness of the hand and wrist is called Klumpke palsy. About half of the cases of brachial plexus injuries are related to difficult deliveries, typically involving large babies, and about half occur in babies with normal deliveries. Brachial plexus injury is less frequent in babies delivered by cesarean delivery. Extreme movements at the shoulder should be avoided to allow the nerves to heal. Many milder injuries resolve over a few days. If the abnormality is more severe or lasts for more than 1 or 2 weeks, physical therapy or occupational therapy for proper positioning and gentle movement of the arm are recommended. If there is no improvement over 1 or 2 months, doctors typically recommend the baby be evaluated by a pediatric neurologist and/or orthopedist at a pediatric specialty hospital to see whether surgery may be beneficial.

The phrenic nerve, which is the nerve going to the diaphragm (the muscular wall that separates the organs of the chest from those of the abdomen and assists in breathing), is occasionally damaged, resulting in paralysis of the diaphragm on the same side. In this case, the newborn may have difficulty breathing and sometimes requires assistance with breathing. Injury of the phrenic nerve usually resolves completely within a few weeks.

Spinal cord injuries due to overstretching during delivery are extremely rare. These injuries can result in paralysis below the site of the injury. Damage to the spinal cord is often permanent. Some spinal cord injuries that occur high up in the neck are fatal because they prevent the newborn from breathing properly.

Other nerves, such as the radial nerve in the arm, the sciatic nerve in the lower back, or the obturator nerve in the leg, also may be injured during delivery.

Bones may be broken (fractured) before or during delivery even when the delivery is normal.

The newborn’s skin may have minor injuries after delivery, especially areas that receive pressure during contractions or that first emerge from the birth canal during delivery. Instruments needed for delivery, such as forceps Operative Vaginal Delivery Operative vaginal delivery is delivery using a vacuum extractor or forceps. A vacuum extractor consists of a small cup made of a rubberlike material that is connected to a vacuum. It is inserted... read more , can injure the skin. Swelling and bruising may occur around the eyes and on the face during face-first deliveries and on the genitals after breech deliveries (see Abnormal Presentations Abnormal Presentations Position refers to whether the fetus is facing rearward (toward the woman’s back—that is, face down when the woman lies on her back) or forward (face up). It’s important to check the baby’s... read more ). No treatment for these bruises is needed.

Use of instruments during delivery and stress on the newborn (such as caused by asphyxia) can injure the fat under the skin (called subcutaneous fat necrosis of the newborn). This skin injury can look like red, firm, raised areas on the trunk, arms, thighs, or buttocks. This type of injury usually resolves on its own over weeks to months.

Perinatal asphyxia is a decrease in blood flow to the baby's tissues or a decrease in oxygen in the baby's blood before, during, or just after delivery. Some common causes include the following:

Sometimes the exact cause of perinatal asphyxia cannot be identified.

Regardless of the cause, affected newborns appear pale and lifeless at birth. They breathe weakly or not at all and have a very slow heart rate. They need to be revived (resuscitated) after delivery. Resuscitation may include use of a resuscitation bag and mask to push air into the lungs or insertion of a breathing tube in the newborn's throat (endotracheal intubation). If asphyxia resulted from rapid blood loss, the newborn may be in shock Shock Shock is a life-threatening condition in which blood flow to the organs is low, decreasing delivery of oxygen and thus causing organ damage and sometimes death. Blood pressure is usually low... read more . They are immediately given fluids by vein, and sometimes a blood transfusion Overview of Blood Transfusion A blood transfusion is the transfer of blood or a blood component from one healthy person (a donor) to a sick person (a recipient). Transfusions are given to increase the blood's ability to... read more .

Newborns with asphyxia may show signs of injury to one or more organ systems, including the following:

Newborns may need medications to help their heart function and a mechanical ventilator Mechanical Ventilation Mechanical ventilation is use of a machine to aid the movement of air into and out of the lungs. Some people with respiratory failure need a mechanical ventilator (a machine that helps air get... read more to support their breathing. Some newborns who have been revived may benefit from having their body temperature lowered below the normal temperature of 98.6° F (37° C) for 72 hours. Blood cell transfusions and plasma may be necessary to manage problems with the blood forming system. Most of the organs damaged by perinatal asphyxia recover over a week, but brain damage may persist.

Survivors who have minimal injury to the brain may be completely normal. Survivors who have moderate to severe injury to the brain may have permanent signs of damage, ranging from mild learning disorders Learning Disorders Learning disorders involve an inability to acquire, retain, or broadly use specific skills or information, resulting from deficiencies in attention, memory, or reasoning and affecting academic... read more to delayed development to cerebral palsy Cerebral Palsy (CP) Cerebral palsy refers to a group of conditions that involve difficulty moving and muscle stiffness (spasticity). It results from brain malformations that occur before birth as the brain is developing... read more . Some severely asphyxiated infants do not survive.