Hyperthyroidism is overactivity of the thyroid gland that leads to high levels of thyroid hormones and speeding up of vital body functions.
Graves disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism.
Heart rate and blood pressure may increase, heart rhythms may be abnormal, and people may sweat excessively, feel nervous and anxious, have difficulty sleeping, lose weight without trying, and have an increased frequency of bowel movements.
Blood tests can confirm the diagnosis.
The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones, which control the speed at which the body’s chemical functions proceed (metabolic rate). Thyroid hormones affect many vital body functions, such as the heart rate, the rate at which calories are burned, skin maintenance, growth, heat production, fertility, and digestion. There are 2 thyroid hormones:
T4: Thyroxine (also called tetraiodothyronine)
T3: Triiodothyronine
The pituitary gland produces thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. The pituitary gland slows or speeds the release of TSH, depending on whether the levels of thyroid hormones circulating in the blood are getting too high or too low.
(See also Overview of the Thyroid Gland.)
Hyperthyroidism affects about 1% of people in the United States. It can occur at any age but is more common in women between the ages of 20 and 50 years.
Neonatal Graves disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism in newborns and children and is caused by abnormal antibodies from the mother that pass through the placenta and stimulate the thyroid of the newborn.
Causes of Hyperthyroidism
The most common causes include
Graves disease
Toxic (hormone-producing) multinodular goiter
Single toxic nodule
Thyroiditis
Graves disease, the most common cause of hyperthyroidism, is an autoimmune disorder. In an autoimmune disorder, the person's immune system produces antibodies that attack the body's own tissues. Usually, the antibodies damage cells and worsen their ability to function. However, in Graves disease, the antibodies stimulate the thyroid gland to produce and secrete excess thyroid hormones into the blood. This cause of hyperthyroidism is often hereditary and almost always leads to enlargement of the thyroid.
Toxic multinodular goiter (Plummer disease), in which there are many nodules (small lumps), one or more of which may start to produce and secrete excess thyroid hormone. This disorder is more common with aging and is uncommon in adolescents and young adults.
Thyroiditis is inflammation of the thyroid gland. The inflammation can be caused by a viral infection (subacute thyroiditis), autoimmune thyroid inflammation that occurs after childbirth (silent lymphocytic thyroiditis), and, much less often, chronic autoimmune inflammation (Hashimoto thyroiditis). At first, the inflammation causes hyperthyroidism as stored hormones are released from the inflamed gland. Later on, hypothyroidism usually follows because the levels of stored hormones are depleted. However, in people with subacute or silent lymphocytic thyroiditis, the gland usually returns to normal function.
A toxic (overactive) thyroid nodule (a benign tumor, or adenoma) is an area of abnormal local tissue growth within the thyroid gland. This abnormal tissue produces thyroid hormones even without stimulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland to stimulate the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones). Thus, a nodule escapes the mechanisms that normally control the thyroid gland and produces thyroid hormones in large quantities.
Other causes of hyperthyroidism include
Some medications, including too much thyroid hormone taken orally
Rarely, overstimulation due to an overactive pituitary gland
Medications and iodine
An overactive pituitary gland can produce too much thyroid-stimulating hormone, which in turn leads to overproduction of thyroid hormones. However, this is an extremely rare cause of hyperthyroidism.
Other rare causes of hyperthyroidism include certain abnormalities of the placenta that produce excess levels of the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin, which can stimulate the thyroid gland to produce excess thyroid hormone, certain tumors of the ovary that contain thyroid tissue, and thyroid cancer that has spread to other areas of the body.
Symptoms of Hyperthyroidism
Most people with hyperthyroidism have an enlarged thyroid gland (goiter). The entire gland may be enlarged, or nodules may develop within certain areas. If people have subacute thyroiditis, the gland may be tender and painful.
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Symptoms of hyperthyroidism, regardless of the cause, reflect the speeding up of body functions:
Increased heart rate and blood pressure
Palpitations due to abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias)
Excessive sweating and feeling too warm
Hand tremors (shakiness)
Nervousness and anxiety
Difficulty sleeping (insomnia)
Weight loss despite increased appetite
Increased activity level despite fatigue and weakness
Frequent bowel movements, occasionally with diarrhea
Change in menstrual periods in women
Older adults with hyperthyroidism may not develop these characteristic symptoms but have what is sometimes called apathetic or masked hyperthyroidism, in which they become weak, confused, withdrawn, and depressed.
Hyperthyroidism can cause changes in the eyes. A person with hyperthyroidism may appear to be staring.
Graves disease
If the cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves disease, specific eye symptoms (sometimes called thyroid eye disease) and skin symptoms (called infiltrative dermopathy) occur.
Eye symptoms include puffiness around the eyes, increased tear formation, irritation, and unusual sensitivity to light. Two distinctive additional symptoms may occur:
Bulging eyes (exophthalmos, or proptosis)
Double vision (diplopia)
The eyes bulge outward because of inflammation in the eye sockets (orbits). The muscles that move the eyes become inflamed and unable to function properly, making it difficult or impossible to move the eyes normally or to coordinate eye movements, resulting in double vision. The eyelids may not close completely (called eyelid lag), exposing the eyes to injury from foreign particles and dryness. These eye changes may begin before any other symptoms of hyperthyroidism, providing an early clue to Graves disease, but most often eye changes occur when other symptoms of hyperthyroidism are noticed. Eye symptoms may even appear or worsen after the excessive thyroid hormone secretion has been treated and controlled.
By permission of the publisher. From Mulligan M, Cousins M. In Atlas of Anesthesia: Preoperative Preparation and Intraoperative Monitoring. Edited by R Miller (series editor) and JL Lichtor. Philadelphia, Current Medicine, 1998.
© Springer Science+Business Media
© Springer Science+Business Media
© Springer Science+Business Media
By permission of the publisher. From Mulligan M, Cousins M. In Atlas of Anesthesia: Preoperative Preparation and Intraoperative Monitoring. Edited by R Miller (series editor) and JL Lichtor. Philadelphia, Current Medicine, 1998.
© Springer Science+Business Media
© Springer Science+Business Media
© Springer Science+Business Media
© Springer Science+Business Media
When Graves disease affects the eyes, there may also be thickening of the skin, usually over the shins, which has the texture of an orange-peel. The thickened area may be itchy and feels hard when pressed with a finger. As with deposits behind the eyes, this problem may begin before or after other symptoms of hyperthyroidism are noticed.
Thyroid storm
Thyroid storm, which is sudden extreme overactivity of the thyroid gland, is a life-threatening emergency. All body functions are accelerated to dangerously high levels. Severe strain on the heart can lead to a life-threatening irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia), extremely fast pulse, and shock. Thyroid storm may also cause fever, extreme weakness, restlessness, mood swings, confusion, altered consciousness (even coma), and an enlarged liver with mild jaundice (a yellowish discoloration of the skin and the whites of the eyes).
Thyroid storm is generally caused by untreated or inadequately treated hyperthyroidism and can be triggered by infection, injury, surgery, poorly controlled diabetes, pregnancy or labor, or other stresses. Also, thyroid storm can occur when medications being used to treat thyroid problems are stopped. It is rare in children.
Thyroid storm is diagnosed by a person's symptoms and examination findings. People are treated with medications used to treat hyperthyroidism and with measures to treat complications (such as fever or altered consciousness). Typically, people with thyroid storm are treated in an intensive care unit.
Diagnosis of Hyperthyroidism
Thyroid function blood tests
Doctors usually suspect hyperthyroidism on the basis of the symptoms and findings on physical examination, including increased heart rate and blood pressure.
Thyroid function blood tests are used to confirm the diagnosis. Often, testing begins with measurement of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). If the thyroid gland is overactive, the level of TSH is low. However, in rare cases in which the pituitary gland is overactive, the level of TSH is normal or high. If the level of TSH in the blood is low, doctors measure the levels of the thyroid hormones in the blood. If there is a question of whether Graves disease is the cause, doctors check a sample of blood for the presence of antibodies that stimulate the thyroid gland (thyroid-stimulating antibodies).
If a thyroid nodule is suspected as the cause, a thyroid scan will show whether the nodule is overactive, that is, whether it is producing excess hormones. Such a scan may also help doctors in their evaluation of Graves disease. In a person with Graves disease, the scan shows the entire gland to be overactive, not just one area. In thyroiditis, the scan shows low activity because of the inflammation.
Treatment of Hyperthyroidism
Treatment of cause
Beta-blockers to block the effects of thyroid hormones
Sometimes medications to block the production of thyroid hormones
Sometimes radioactive iodine to destroy some or all of the thyroid gland
Sometimes surgery to remove all or part of the thyroid
Treatment of hyperthyroidism depends on the cause. In most cases, the problem causing hyperthyroidism can be cured or the symptoms can be eliminated or greatly reduced. Left untreated, however, hyperthyroidism places undue stress on the heart and many other organs.
Treatment with radioactive iodine
Radioactive iodine may be given by mouth to destroy part of the thyroid gland. This is the most common treatment for hyperthyroidism. The radioactivity is mainly delivered to the thyroid gland because the thyroid gland takes up the iodine and concentrates it. Hospitalization is rarely necessary. After treatment, the person should probably not be near infants and young children for 2 to 4 days and should sleep in a separate bed separated at least 6 feet (about 2 meters) from the partner. Pregnancy should be avoided for about 6 to 12 months. People who have had radioactive iodine treatment should stay at least 6 feet away from pregnant women, infants, or small children for 6 to 23 days; the amount of time depends on the dose received. People who have had radioactive iodine treatment may set off radiation alarms at airports and sometimes other places for several weeks after treatment and, therefore, should carry a doctor’s note describing their treatment if they travel on public transportation.
Some doctors try to adjust the dose of radioactive iodine to destroy only enough of the thyroid gland to bring its hormone production back to normal, without reducing thyroid function too much. Other doctors use a larger dose to completely destroy the thyroid. Most of the time, people who undergo this treatment must take thyroid hormone replacement therapy for the rest of their life. Although concerns have been raised that radioactive iodine may cause cancer, an increased risk of cancer in people who have had radioactive iodine treatment has never been confirmed. Radioactive iodine is not given to pregnant or nursing women because it crosses the placenta and enters the milk and may destroy the fetus’s or breastfed infant’s thyroid gland.
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Treatment with medications
Beta-blockers
and are the medications most commonly used to treat hyperthyroidism. They work by decreasing the gland’s production of thyroid hormones. Carbimazole, a medication that is widely used in Europe, is converted into methimazole in the body. Methimazole is usually preferred because propylthiouracil may damage the liver in young people. Pregnant women who take propylthiouracil or methimazole are closely monitored because these medications cross the placenta and can cause goiter or hypothyroidism in the fetus.
Each medication is taken by mouth, beginning with high doses that are later adjusted according to blood test results. These medications can usually control thyroid function within 2 to 3 months. Larger doses of these medications may work more quickly but increase the risk of side effects.
Iodine, given by mouth, is sometimes used to treat hyperthyroidism. It is reserved for people in whom rapid treatment is needed, such as those with thyroid storm. It may also be used to control hyperthyroidism until the person can have surgery to remove the thyroid. It is not used long-term.
Other treatments
Surgery to remove part or all of the thyroid gland, called thyroidectomy, is a treatment option for people with hyperthyroidism, especially for children and adolescents with Graves disease. Surgery is also an option for people who have a very large goiter as well as for those who are allergic to or who develop severe side effects from the medications used to treat hyperthyroidism or those who do not want radiation exposure. Hyperthyroidism is permanently controlled in more than 90% of people who choose this option. Hypothyroidism often occurs after surgery, and people then have to take replacement thyroid hormone for the rest of their life. Rare complications of surgery include paralysis of the vocal cords and damage to the parathyroid glands (the tiny glands behind the thyroid gland that control calcium levels in the blood).
In Graves disease,
